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From Surviving to Thriving: Increasing Equitable Discipline Outcomes in Preschool Settings

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Title: From Surviving to Thriving: Increasing Equitable Discipline Outcomes in Preschool Settings
Language: English
Authors: Kizzy Albritton (ORCID 0000-0003-3959-7724), Kenia Cruz, Erica Burley
Source: Theory Into Practice. 2025 64(3):355-368.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Preschool Education
Elementary Secondary Education
Descriptors: Equal Education, Discipline, Preschool Education, Minority Groups, Young Children, Race, Ethnicity, African American Children, Early Childhood Education, Social Justice, Culturally Relevant Education, Federal Legislation, State Legislation, Educational Policy, Disproportionate Representation, Outcomes of Education, Preschool Children, Elementary Secondary Education, Educational Practices
DOI: 10.1080/00405841.2025.2503306
ISSN: 0040-5841
1543-0421
Abstract: Although there is extensive literature illustrating the short-term and long-term benefits of high-quality preschool programs, young children from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds, particularly young Black children, do not appear to be equal beneficiaries of the opportunities afforded to other children who participate in these programs. There are several systemic and compounding issues that negatively impact young children's ability to fully benefit from participating in a high-quality preschool program including inequitable exclusionary discipline practices. In this article, we provide a brief discussion of how the creation of certain early childhood education programs was an act of social justice. We then provide a detailed discussion about how inequitable exclusionary discipline practices across preschool programs have resulted in social injustices. The article concludes with recommendations for practitioners with a focus on the use of culturally responsive practices and the need for additional state and federal policies.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1501818
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0187255247;tip01jun.25;2025Aug13.02:42;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187255247-1">From surviving to thriving: Increasing equitable discipline outcomes in preschool settings </title> <sbt id="AN0187255247-2">Introduction</sbt> <p>Although there is extensive literature illustrating the short-term and long-term benefits of high-quality preschool programs, young children from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds, particularly young Black children, do not appear to be equal beneficiaries of the opportunities afforded to other children who participate in these programs. There are several systemic and compounding issues that negatively impact young children's ability to fully benefit from participating in a high-quality preschool program including inequitable exclusionary discipline practices. In this article, we provide a brief discussion of how the creation of certain early childhood education programs was an act of social justice. We then provide a detailed discussion about how inequitable exclusionary discipline practices across preschool programs have resulted in social injustices. The article concludes with recommendations for practitioners with a focus on the use of culturally responsive practices and the need for additional state and federal policies.</p> <p>Education, in general, is often touted as the great equalizer and participation in a high-quality early childhood education program is often identified as an opportunity to further enhance young children's academic trajectory and overall well-being (e.g., Yoshikawa et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref1">64</reflink>]). In recent years, national efforts to expand early childhood education programs have increased with approximately 1.6 million children participating in state-funded preschool programs during the 2022–2023 school year (Friedman-Kraus et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref2">13</reflink>]). But what happens when access to the great equalizer is inequitable? Inequitable disciplinary practices and policies in early childhood education programs impede young children's ability to participate in preschool programs and young children from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds, particularly Black children, are disproportionately represented when examining preschool suspension and expulsion rates across publicly funded preschool programs (Department of Education [DOE] Office for Civil Rights, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref3">59</reflink>]). Furthermore, the issue of disciplinary disproportionality for preschool students is problematic because it significantly reduces young children's opportunity to fully benefit from early childhood education. Participation in early childhood education programs is often the initial pathway in gaining the pre-academic skills needed for later academic success.</p> <p>Throughout this article the term "preschool" is used when referring to young children between 3 to 5 years of age and the terms preschool, prekindergarten, and early childhood are used interchangeably when referring to this population. In this article, we provide a detailed discussion of issues regarding inequitable exclusionary discipline practices and discipline disparities. The goal of this discussion is to illustrate the complex barriers impacting young children from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds in early childhood settings and assist early childhood personnel in understanding the urgent need to embrace culturally responsive and culturally relevant pedagogical approaches (Gay, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref4">16</reflink>]; Ladson-Billings, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref5">27</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref6">28</reflink>]) as well as developmentally appropriate and equitable discipline practices. We begin the discussion by providing a brief overview of the origin and benefits of early childhood education. We then examine the use of exclusionary disciplinary practices in K-12 settings as we believe that discipline practices and policies in K-12 have significantly influenced their frequent and harmful use in early childhood settings. We conclude with a discussion of practitioner recommendations.</p> <hd id="AN0187255247-3">Preschools as a mechanism of social justice</hd> <p>The origins of early childhood education are often traced back to the need to address issues of social justice and equity for young children living in marginalized communities or from marginalized backgrounds (Iruka et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref7">24</reflink>]). According to Linnemeyer et al. ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref8">31</reflink>]), social justice is the "basic valuing of fair and equitable distribution of resources, rights, and treatments for marginalized individuals and groups of people who do not possess equal power in society" (p. 99). Unfortunately, young children and families from minoritized and economically marginalized backgrounds were and still often are subjected to the unequal distribution of resources in the United States and in 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson established the largest, federally funded early childhood education program to address social and economic injustices (Zigler & Styfco, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref9">66</reflink>]). "Johnson's War on Poverty was an act of social justice" (Iruka et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref10">24</reflink>], p. 1) as it was designed to leverage the short- and long-term benefits of early childhood education by providing learning opportunities to young children whose families were experiencing economic marginalization.</p> <p>An extensive literature base documents positive short- and long-term benefits from participating in high-quality early childhood programs (e.g., Barnett, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref11">1</reflink>]; Yoshikawa et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref12">64</reflink>]). These benefits include improvements in young children's social-emotional, behavioral, and academic development (e.g., Camilli et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref13">6</reflink>]). Several longitudinal studies have also documented the long-term impact of participation in a high-quality early childhood program with results indicating decreased likelihood of retention and increased likelihood of high school graduation and future earnings (e.g., Campbell et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref14">7</reflink>]; e.g.; Reynolds & Ou, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref15">49</reflink>]; Schweinhart et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref16">50</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187255247-4">Exclusionary discipline in K-12 settings</hd> <p>The use of exclusionary discipline practices in K-12 settings arose from the enforcement of "zero tolerance policies" across the United States (Mallett, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref17">34</reflink>]). Zero tolerance policies began with the passing of the Gun Free Schools Act in 1994, which was created to combat gun related school violence (Martinez, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref18">35</reflink>]; Muñiz, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref19">38</reflink>]). Under the Gun Free Schools Act, students who brought guns to school were required to be expelled for at least 1 year (Martinez, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref20">35</reflink>]). Eventually, zero tolerance was expanded to include all weapons, drugs, and physical fights (Mallett, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref21">34</reflink>]; Martinez, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref22">35</reflink>]; Muñiz, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref23">38</reflink>]). With the expansion of zero tolerance, schools have more opportunity to use disciplinary practices that exclude students from the school setting (Losen & Martinez, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref24">33</reflink>]; Mallett, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref25">34</reflink>]; Payne & Welch, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref26">45</reflink>]; Theriot, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref27">54</reflink>]). Exclusionary discipline removes a student from the classroom (i.e., in school suspension, out of school suspension, expulsion) as punishment for "zero tolerance" infractions. According to the most recent U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref28">59</reflink>]) report on exclusionary discipline in the United States, over 638,700 students received 1 or more out-of-school suspensions from K-12 schools during the 2020–2021 school year, which is about 1% of the total public school enrollment. Children that received 1 or more out-of-school suspensions were out of school for a combined total of more than 2 million days during the 2020–2021 school year. Of those students who were suspended or expelled, Black students were almost two times more likely to receive out-of-school suspensions or expulsions than White students. Not only are Black children disproportionately removed from school through suspensions and expulsions, they also are disproportionately referred to law enforcement (Bradshaw et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref29">4</reflink>]; Skiba et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref30">53</reflink>]) and arrested in school settings (Darensbourg et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref31">8</reflink>]; U.S. Department for Education Office for Civil Rights, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref32">56</reflink>]).</p> <p>Though frequently used, research has found that exclusionary discipline practices in K-12 schools do not reduce misbehavior, nor does it increase school safety (Gerlinger, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref33">18</reflink>]; Lea et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref34">29</reflink>]; LiCalsi et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref35">30</reflink>]; Novak, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref36">41</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref37">61</reflink>]). Instead, previous studies have found that when students received more suspensions, their academic performance and engagement in school decreased (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref38">61</reflink>]). In their longitudinal study on exclusionary discipline, Novak ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref39">41</reflink>]) also found that Black children were 3.14 times more likely to be pushed out of school compared to their White peers and that the externalizing behaviors (e.g., cheating, in-school fights, stealing) of Black children were punished more often than their White classmates. Findings also indicated that children who were constantly excluded from school settings had an increased risk of arrest and an increased risk of exclusion in other settings (e.g., work, after-school programming) (Novak, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref40">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>The behaviors of students from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds are consistently policed in K-12 settings (Bondy et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref41">3</reflink>]) although they often exhibit similar behaviors as their White counterparts (Skiba et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref42">53</reflink>]). A possible cause of this discrepancy could be the implicit bias many hold against Black children. Gullo and Beachum ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref43">22</reflink>]) investigated the role of implicit bias in administrators' decisions at school. Findings revealed that about 67% of administrators demonstrated some level of preference (i.e., slight, strong) for White students while only a quarter demonstrated no preference at all. It is estimated that about 19% of the disciplinary decisions made by educators could be at least partially attributed to implicit biases. While implicit biases are often subconscious, biases about Black children's misbehavior have the potential to push them out of schools and into criminal justice systems. In their investigation of the role race and age play in juvenile court decisions, Zane et al. ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref44">65</reflink>]) found that Black children between the ages of 14 and 17 were more likely to be placed in adult facilities than White children of the same age. They hypothesize that implicit biases cause Black children to be viewed as "adult-like," and therefore more responsible for their crimes. A similar pattern can now be observed in schools, where previous studies have found implicit biases in the decision making of educator's disciplinary practices (Okonofua & Eberhardt, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref45">43</reflink>]). Okonofua and Eberhardt ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref46">43</reflink>]) found Black students were more likely than White students to be labeled as troublemakers. Also, Black students' misbehavior was more likely to be seen as a misbehavior pattern when compared to White students. Unfortunately, the overidentification of Black students in discipline related events is not limited to K-12 settings. In the following section, we provide an overview of how exclusionary discipline practices are frequently used across early childhood programs and disproportionately impact young children of color.</p> <hd id="AN0187255247-5">Preschools as carceral spaces</hd> <p>Although the foundation of many early childhood programs was rooted in social justice beliefs, there is an overwhelming number of practices, policies, and mechanisms that deny young children the opportunities and equitable outcomes early childhood education was designed to provide. Due to the ongoing use of exclusionary disciplinary practices and policies, early childhood settings are now a major contributor to the social injustices reflected in our K-12 schools and society. When young children from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds are excluded from early childhood settings it unsurprisingly leads to unequal educational outcomes that could have been prevented had there been socially just discipline practices and policies in place.</p> <p>Since the landmark study by Gilliam ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref47">20</reflink>]), various reports have documented the discipline disparities that exist in preschool settings (DOE Office for Civil Rights, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref48">56</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref49">57</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref50">58</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref51">59</reflink>]). Amongst these expulsion rates, discipline disparities have been identified amongst Black and White children. During the 2013–2014 school year, Black preschool children were more than three times as likely than their White peers (Hispanic- and Non-Hispanic) to be suspended. Unfortunately, these disparities for young Black children continue to exist (DOE Office for Civil Rights, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref52">59</reflink>]). During the 2020–2021 school year, Black preschoolers represented only 17% of preschool enrollment but received 31% of suspensions and 25% of expulsions. Furthermore, while Black preschool-age girls represented only 8% of preschool enrollment, they accounted for 7% of suspensions and 9% of expulsions (DOE Office for Civil Rights, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref53">59</reflink>]).</p> <p>High rates of exclusionary practices and racial disparities are also evident across various types of early childhood settings (e.g., community-based childcare, Head Start, public preschool) (Loomis et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref54">32</reflink>]). Gilliam's ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref55">20</reflink>]) seminal study examined disciplinary practices within public preschool programs, Head Start programs, for-profit childcare centers, faith-affiliated programs, and other community-based programs. Findings revealed that teachers working in faith affiliated, for-profit childcare, and other community-based programs, reported expelling at least one child in the past 12 months resulting in higher suspension rates than other types of preschool programs (public preschool, Head Start). Additionally, Hooper and Schweiker ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref56">23</reflink>]) investigated results from the 2013 administration of the National Survey of Early Care and Education and findings revealed that 13.3% of home-based childcare centers reported expelling at least one child in the previous year. These study findings illustrate the extent to which preschoolers are subjected to exclusionary practices across early childhood settings. Other studies examining community-based programs also found high rates of racial disparities in discipline practices (Giordano et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref57">21</reflink>]). For instance, Giordano et al. ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref58">21</reflink>]) found that Black children enrolled in community childcare programs were at a higher risk of being expelled, than those in public programs.</p> <p>While the previous studies clearly illustrate the extent to which young children from minoritized backgrounds are subjected to exclusionary discipline practices, it is likely that many suspensions and expulsions in early childhood settings are undocumented due to the significant variability in governance and funding sources (Garrity et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref59">15</reflink>]; Kagan & Gomez, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref60">25</reflink>]). That is, reporting requirements largely depend on the educational agency that oversees the early childhood setting. Therefore, not all centers are required to report exclusionary discipline practices and thus implement their own practices. Privately funded early childhood settings may not be subject to documenting and reporting exclusionary discipline practices, whereas publicly and state-funded programs are typically required to provide documentation. For example, early childhood settings that are funded by Head Start not only prohibit expulsion and impose strict limitations on suspensions, but they also mandate documentation of the steps taken to address children's behavioral challenges before suspension may be considered (e.g., Head Start Program Performance Standards; Expulsion and Suspension Policy Statement; Office of Head Start, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref61">42</reflink>]; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & U.S. Department of Education, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref62">60</reflink>]).</p> <p>Guidelines and definitions of discipline across settings also highly differ and are unclear (Loomis et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref63">32</reflink>]) resulting in potential undocumented suspensions and expulsions. For example, Zinsser et al. ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref64">68</reflink>]) examined expulsion rates and practices in early childhood programs in the state of Illinois as well as programs' understanding and response to Public Act 100–0105, which prohibits the use of expulsion due to children's behavior. To examine early childhood programs' responses to the new law, administrators were provided a vignette and asked to describe how their program would typically respond to a child displaying persistent challenging behavior. Results revealed that approximately 58% of administrators indicated they would likely not make any changes to their existing processes.</p> <hd id="AN0187255247-6">Preschool age children as members of the system-impacted population</hd> <p>The early experiences that children encounter is predictive of their later well-being and overall functioning (Pianta et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref65">46</reflink>]; Shonkoff & Phillips, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref66">51</reflink>]). Therefore, the exclusionary practices that racially and ethnically minoritized children are subjected to when participating in early childhood programs may likely negatively influence their later development and their future experiences within educational spaces. Developmental theories can help contextualize the way in which these early experiences shape children's social-emotional development to help us better understand behavioral supports that are developmentally appropriate for preschool-age children rather than applying discipline approaches that are punitive and harsh. Attachment theory posits that parent-child interactions during infancy serve as a blueprint for later emotional regulation. However, these interactions are not limited to parents or the home setting (Woodhouse et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref67">63</reflink>]), where any proximal contexts and caregivers also result in significant influences on their social-emotional development. That is, children's social-emotional development does not occur in a vacuum and thus is influenced by the environments children directly interact with (Figge et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref68">10</reflink>]), which includes the school context, particularly early childhood educators who have daily interactions with young children.</p> <p>A large body of research has found associations between children's early teacher interactions and social-emotional outcomes (Blair et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref69">2</reflink>]; Cadima et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref70">5</reflink>]; McKinnon & Blair, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref71">37</reflink>]). These studies conclude that as teachers and children develop a positive relationship, children develop greater social competencies, increase their academic performance, and decrease behavioral difficulties. Specifically, studies have found that close and stable relationships between teachers and children during early childhood provide the emotional supports necessary to promote children social-emotional skills, such as prosocial and self-regulation skills (e.g. Cadima et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref72">5</reflink>]; K. M. Zinsser et al., [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref73">67</reflink>]). Though these positive child-interactions may prove beneficial for children, special considerations should be considered when analyzing these interactions with children from marginalized and minoritized populations. For instance, research has found that Black children are often rated as having higher levels of conflict in relationships with their teachers (Gallagher et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref74">14</reflink>]). Furthermore, research has long found that when there is an ethnic/racial mismatch between Black children and their teachers, their relationships may not be as close as with other children (Pigott & Cowen, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref75">47</reflink>]). Research has suggested that lower levels of positive relationships between Black children and their teachers may contribute to the preschool to prison pipeline (e.g., McCarter et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref76">36</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187255247-7">Recommendations for practitioners</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187255247-8">Examining classroom curricula</hd> <p>Early childhood educators' pedagogical and classroom management practices may impact their relational interactions with young children from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds. The disproportionate use of exclusionary discipline practices may be "a reflection of teachers not understanding the cultural context of classroom behavior and the role of culture in the teaching and learning process" (Siwatu et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref77">52</reflink>], p. 865). For example, norms or expectations regarding appropriate classroom behavior are often culturally influenced (Weinstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref78">62</reflink>]). Therefore, when students are from a different cultural background from their classroom teacher, it may significantly increase the likelihood that they are disciplined for "behaviors that may actually be appropriate when viewed through a cultural lens" (Siwatu et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref79">52</reflink>], p. 863). The use of culturally responsive and culturally relevant practices is one potential mechanism for this cultural lens that some early childhood teachers may lack.</p> <p>There is extensive research examining the implementation of culturally responsive teaching (Gay, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref80">17</reflink>]) and culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref81">27</reflink>]) with young children from racially and/or ethnically minoritized backgrounds (e.g., Durden et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref82">9</reflink>]; Gichuru et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref83">19</reflink>]). Culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref84">27</reflink>]) and culturally responsive teaching (Gay, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref85">17</reflink>]) are strength-based approaches to curriculum and instructional strategies that aim to support children from marginalized backgrounds. Gay ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref86">17</reflink>]) described five components that teachers must possess to effectively implement culturally responsive teaching practices including teachers developing knowledge about their students cultural and ethnic diversity, knowledge on embedding this diversity into the curriculum, a positive classroom climate and community that fosters ethnically marginalized students learning experiences in the classroom, the ability to communicate cross-culturally, and cultural congruity within the classroom instruction. Paris ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref87">44</reflink>]) argues that pedagogical choices must go beyond relevance and responsiveness but become sustaining. Culturally sustaining pedagogy is when teachers sustain and engage with students' identities while also teaching them dominant cultural ideas. By using culturally sustaining pedagogy in the classroom students will become culturally plural, able to engage with their own communities and with the dominant culture.</p> <p>Unfortunately, pedagogical choices in early childhood programs are highly variable in content, guidance, and delivery of curriculum (Frede & Ackerman, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref88">12</reflink>]). Specifically, there is a lack of implementation or utilization of culturally responsive teaching in early childhood settings. For instance, the National Center on Early Childhood Development, Teaching, and Learning ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref89">40</reflink>]) conducted a review of curriculums used by Head Start grantees. The review involved rating multiple criteria, one of which included evidence of curriculum supporting cultural responsiveness. The criterion rated curricula based on components regarding guidance on interactions (e.g., how to interact with diverse children), learning experiences (e.g., does the curriculum provide guidance on how to provide learning experiences based off children's families, cultures, values, and beliefs?), and learning materials (e.g., does the curriculum provide guidance on using learning materials to represent students' cultures and ethnicities?). A total of 17 curricula were reviewed and only 5 curricula demonstrated moderate evidence of meeting the criterion of culturally responsiveness, 10 demonstrated minimal evidence, 2 demonstrated no evidence, and none of the curricula demonstrated full evidence of meeting the criterion.</p> <p>Early childhood educators seeking to engage in culturally responsive practices may begin by ensuring that young children from historically marginalized communities have an opportunity to engage daily with books and classroom materials that reflect their racial, ethnic, cultural, and/or linguistic backgrounds. This may include ensuring that the classroom library is filled with a variety of options in which young children are able to "see" themselves and their families. Additionally, early childhood classroom teachers should consistently select books for daily read-aloud that illustrate the accomplishments of individuals from marginalized communities rather than only highlighting these achievements during selected or designated times of the school year (i.e., Black History Month). Finally, for culturally responsive teaching practices to be effective, teachers must be (a) critical of their own biases and of societal influences that negatively affect marginalized students, (b) be intentional in their integration of cultural diversity and (c) believe in the practices they implement (Durden et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref90">9</reflink>]). Therefore, early childhood educators are encouraged to closely examine the ways in which they interpret the intersecting identities of the children in their classrooms and how these interpretations may result in unconscious biases and microaggressions toward young children from racially minoritized backgrounds (Iruka et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref91">24</reflink>]). One tool that early childhood teachers may use to guide this process is <emph>Say What? — Understanding, Identifying, and Addressing Microaggressions</emph> (Kok et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref92">26</reflink>]), a free resource available for download from The University of Nebraska.</p> <hd id="AN0187255247-9">Examining discipline policies and practices</hd> <p>Research suggests that it is not only necessary to implement a culturally responsive or culturally relevant curriculum, but early childhood educators should also examine their current discipline policies to determine the extent to which the policies lead to equitable discipline outcomes. A helpful tool that could strengthen early childhood educators' ability to collect and analyze behavioral data is the Behavior Incident Report System (BIRS; National Center for Pyramid Innovations, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref93">39</reflink>]). BIRS was developed to assist early childhood educators in objectively analyzing behavioral concerns using an Excel spreadsheet. BIRS allows programs to electronically document, monitor, and address teacher responses to behavioral incidents in the classroom. It, too, is available for free download from the National Center for Pyramid Innovations (see https://challengingbehavior.org/implementation/data-decision-making/birs/).</p> <p>When an educator has a concern regarding a child's behavior, they are prompted to complete a Behavior Incident Report (BIR) which gathers information about the problem behavior, activity, individuals involved, possible motivation, response, administrative follow-up, race/ethnicity, gender, IEP status, and English learner status. Once this information has been entered into the system, demographic variables (e.g., race/ethnicity, IEP status) are analyzed and an "equity alert" is generated within the BIRS system. This equity alert is generated when a potential disproportionality is detected. These equity alerts allow for a deeper and systematic understanding of individual, classroom, or program-level issues related to behavioral concerns and responses to those behaviors (e.g., suspensions, expulsions), especially as they relate to disproportionate practices. Though the BIRS does not measure implicit bias directly, it allows the analysis of potential patterns in how behavior incidents are reported, responded to, and resolved. For example, based on the information provided, the BIRS system can yield disproportionality metrics, response patterns, and behavior types and motivations. Disproportionality metrics calculate risk ratios for behavior incidents by demographics, such as gender, race/ethnicity, and IEP status. These metrics can allow direct identification of overrepresentation in disciplinary practices. Response pattern identification also allows identification of how educators are responding to behaviors from children from differing backgrounds, which may indicate how educators are perceiving these behaviors. The tracking of behavior types and teacher-identified behavior motivation (e.g., what the teacher perceives was the function of the child's behavior) can also indicate which behaviors and which children are disproportionately labeled as more problematic. Furthermore, the system may detect that most BIRs are about children from a specific ethnic background, or it may detect that children from specific ethnic backgrounds are at higher risk for out of school suspensions than others. Additionally, the system allows for effective data-based decisions to support children's behaviors, teacher strategies, and the overall program. For instance, administrators can reflect upon disproportionate reports and practices, which can inform educator professional development (e.g., classroom management, implicit bias) and establishing program-wide practices (e.g., social emotional learning).</p> <p>To date, one study has sought to examine the fidelity and effectiveness of the BIRS in early childhood settings. Fox et al. ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref94">11</reflink>]) used a Pyramid model framework to examine the potential reduction of preschool suspensions and expulsions. The BIRS was utilized to monitor behavior referrals, identify trends, and support equity in disciplinary practices such as providing additional teacher support, developing targeted interventions, and supporting teachers in reflectionary practices to explore potential implicit biases. These data-based decisions resulted in a reduction of behavior incidents, increased equity (e.g., reduction in disproportionality due to implicit bias reflection), improved teacher practice (e.g., identify child triggers and children who need additional support, classroom management strategies), and a reduction in exclusionary practices (e.g., suspension, expulsion). Though still in its infancy stages, BIRS has the potential to strengthen current efforts in preschool that aim to improve social emotional strategies and prevent inequitable discipline disparities.</p> <p>Early childhood education programs should also closely examine the extent to which they collaborate with families to support children's behavior in the classroom. Unfortunately, it is often common practice to communicate with families only after a child's behavioral difficulties have persisted for quite some time. As a result, teachers have become exasperated, and families are left frustrated and wondering why concerns regarding their child's behavior was not communicated sooner. Therefore, early childhood education programs should collaborate with families during the child's enrollment to develop a two-way communication system that allows not only the teacher to provide communications to the family but also allows the family to provide communications to the teachers. Furthermore, these communications to the family should not only occur when there are behavioral difficulties but should frequently include positive behavioral observations (e.g., the child assisted a peer in the class, the child cleaned up the center without an adult request). Additionally, early childhood programs should collaborate with families to identify what effective behavioral supports are used in the home setting and the extent to which those behavioral supports can be used within the classroom. It is likely that consistency in behavioral supports across the school and home setting will not only strengthen family-school collaboration efforts but will also result in positive teacher-child interactions which will ultimately improve academic and behavioral outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0187255247-10">Additional policy needed to support improvement in practice</hd> <p>Recent federal policy efforts have focused on the use of exclusionary discipline practices in state and federally funded educational programs. The DOE Office for Civil Rights ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref95">55</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref96">56</reflink>]) argues that exclusionary disciplinary practices are a violation of student's civil rights, and the 2015 reauthorization of the Elementary Secondary Education Act now requires school districts to collect and report data regarding exclusionary discipline practices. The US Department of Health and Human Services and Department of Education ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref97">60</reflink>]) also requires preschools that receive public funding to report data on exclusionary discipline practices. This data collection must include preschool students' race/ethnicity given observed racial disparities in expulsions and suspensions.</p> <p>The implementation of federal policies regarding early childhood education is an appropriate initial step, however, a review of the literature indicates there are only 12 states that have legislation addressing early childhood education exclusionary discipline practices (Loomis et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref98">32</reflink>]). While this number indicates progress for young children from racially minoritized backgrounds who have been negatively impacted by exclusionary discipline practices, it also illustrates the stark realization that 38 states have yet to adopt and formally pass discipline related legislation. Within states that have adopted specific legislation that limits and/or restricts the use of discipline in early childhood and during the early grades (Rafa, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref99">48</reflink>]), there appears to be very limited guidance for early childhood programs regarding alternative actions for discipline related concerns. For example, Loomis et al. ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref100">32</reflink>]) found that most legislatures only provided nonspecific recommendations with broad language such as "behavioral interventions." It is unclear how school districts and early childhood programs are to effectively implement these nonspecific recommendations without school-based personnel who have received the specific knowledge, skills, and training. Zinsser et al. ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref101">68</reflink>]) found that although early childhood administrators were aware of a recent state policy, administrators did not feel the need to adjust their practices to reflect the changes outlined in the state policy. These results suggest that current policy and legislation may not fully capture the modifications that are needed to current discipline practices and the development of school-based procedures that promote equitable discipline outcomes for all children.</p> <hd id="AN0187255247-11">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <hd id="AN0187255247-12">Additional Resources</hd> <p>1. <bold>Iruka, I. U., Curenton, S. M., Durden, T. R., & Escayg, K. A. (2020). <emph>Don't look away: Embracing anti-bias classrooms</emph>. Gryphon House Incorporated.</bold></p> <p>This book includes practical strategies for early childhood professionals seeking to examine issues surrounding bias and equity in early childhood classrooms.</p> <ulist> <item>2. <bold>Iruka, I. U. (2019). Race and racism in early childhood education: Redressing the past to forge forward. <emph>Exchange</emph>, 32–36.</bold> This article discusses historical examples of racism and racist activist and their impact on early childhood education programs. 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An: EJ1501818
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: From Surviving to Thriving: Increasing Equitable Discipline Outcomes in Preschool Settings
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kizzy+Albritton%22">Kizzy Albritton</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3959-7724">0000-0003-3959-7724</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kenia+Cruz%22">Kenia Cruz</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Erica+Burley%22">Erica Burley</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Theory+Into+Practice%22"><i>Theory Into Practice</i></searchLink>. 2025 64(3):355-368.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 14
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Descriptive
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Preschool+Education%22">Preschool Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Equal+Education%22">Equal Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Discipline%22">Discipline</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Education%22">Preschool Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Minority+Groups%22">Minority Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Young+Children%22">Young Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Race%22">Race</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethnicity%22">Ethnicity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22African+American+Children%22">African American Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Justice%22">Social Justice</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Culturally+Relevant+Education%22">Culturally Relevant Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Federal+Legislation%22">Federal Legislation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22State+Legislation%22">State Legislation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Policy%22">Educational Policy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Disproportionate+Representation%22">Disproportionate Representation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Outcomes+of+Education%22">Outcomes of Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Children%22">Preschool Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Practices%22">Educational Practices</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/00405841.2025.2503306
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0040-5841<br />1543-0421
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Although there is extensive literature illustrating the short-term and long-term benefits of high-quality preschool programs, young children from racially and ethnically minoritized backgrounds, particularly young Black children, do not appear to be equal beneficiaries of the opportunities afforded to other children who participate in these programs. There are several systemic and compounding issues that negatively impact young children's ability to fully benefit from participating in a high-quality preschool program including inequitable exclusionary discipline practices. In this article, we provide a brief discussion of how the creation of certain early childhood education programs was an act of social justice. We then provide a detailed discussion about how inequitable exclusionary discipline practices across preschool programs have resulted in social injustices. The article concludes with recommendations for practitioners with a focus on the use of culturally responsive practices and the need for additional state and federal policies.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1501818
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1501818
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/00405841.2025.2503306
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 14
        StartPage: 355
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Equal Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Discipline
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Minority Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Young Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Race
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ethnicity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: African American Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Childhood Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Justice
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Culturally Relevant Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Federal Legislation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: State Legislation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Policy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Disproportionate Representation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Outcomes of Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary Secondary Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Practices
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: From Surviving to Thriving: Increasing Equitable Discipline Outcomes in Preschool Settings
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kizzy Albritton
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kenia Cruz
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Erica Burley
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      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0040-5841
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1543-0421
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 64
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Theory Into Practice
              Type: main
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