View in EDS HTML Full Text PDF Full Text

Short Report: Autistic Adults' Perceptions of Gender, Autism, and Policing in the United States

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: Short Report: Autistic Adults' Perceptions of Gender, Autism, and Policing in the United States
Language: English
Authors: Meredith Cola (ORCID 0000-0001-6737-6828), Aili Hauptmann, Alison Russell, Dieu M. Truong (ORCID 0000-0002-9339-3100), Ashlee Yates Flanagan (ORCID 0000-0002-8428-2820), Kimberly G. Tena, Juan Pacheco, Ashley Zitter (ORCID 0000-0002-5759-081X), Azia Knox, Maggie Rose Pelella, Lizzy Fulop, Maxine Covello, Amanda Lee (ORCID 0009-0004-3973-6338), Margaret Lyons, Sarah Schillinger (ORCID 0009-0002-9842-7418), Rita Solórzano, Sinan Turnacioglu, Vijay Ravindran, Judith S. Miller, Joseph P. McCleery (ORCID 0000-0002-3963-9958), Julia Parish-Morris
Source: Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice. 2026 30(5):1368-1377.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 10
Publication Date: 2026
Sponsoring Agency: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (DHHS/NIH)
National Institutes of Health (NIH) (DHHS)
Contract Number: P50HD105354
R42MH115539
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Autism Spectrum Disorders, Adults, At Risk Persons, Police Community Relationship, Gender Identity, Attitudes, Police, Justice, Self Disclosure (Individuals), Symptoms (Individual Disorders), Law Enforcement
DOI: 10.1177/13623613251395539
ISSN: 1362-3613
1461-7005
Abstract: Autistic individuals face increased risk during police interactions in the United States, including injury and death. Research shows police behave inequitably during interactions with marginalized communities and may behave even more inequitably toward individuals with multiple minoritized identities. Many autistic people also identify as gender diverse. However, it is largely unknown if or how autistic adults' perceptions of police differ by gender identity. We examined autistic adults' perceptions of policing, autism, and gender using an online questionnaire. Results revealed significant differences across gender groups (cis women, cis men, gender diverse) in perceptions of justice, comfort in disclosing diagnosis, helpfulness of diagnostic disclosure, influence of gender, and concern that one's autistic traits would be misperceived as dangerous. These findings align with widespread calls for police reform and suggest current policing practices likely do not meet the needs of all autistic individuals, particularly autistic cis women and gender diverse individuals, who are more likely to report their gender has influenced police interactions and more concerned that their autistic characteristics are being misperceived, relative to autistic cis men. Reducing the harm marginalized groups face because of systemic inequities in the current policing system is a critical need that could enhance safety for autistic individuals.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1503233
Database: ERIC
Full text is not displayed to guests.
FullText Links:
  – Type: pdflink
    Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwGRVYQbyzrSGHnP4b9rXZzPAAAA4jCB3wYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHRMIHOAgEAMIHIBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDNdeW03XOaPAg7yAYAIBEICBmqYn10fpmgUEUZ1hJC3EODHb_yoqa9TeXjrdW-83VsYhZCt93AGCD6zsUsqusBOYge4M3UXtBVm03L0G1anTWxt9XkzzxftFQMyBOPobvlpT6hWbOOULBou-n2HHF-gBw_Hbl53BNOlol1gyD-UET3C-RjSQRqhZ_GZYnOwYrD2GwVCJZYBArRoc1Eisx1XlgwZ06Yx1jZEasFc=
Text:
  Availability: 1
  Value: <anid>AN0193059416;f9d01may.26;2026Apr20.02:44;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0193059416-1">Short report: Autistic adults' perceptions of gender, autism, and policing in the United States </title> <p>Autistic individuals face increased risk during police interactions in the United States, including injury and death. Research shows police behave inequitably during interactions with marginalized communities and may behave even more inequitably toward individuals with multiple minoritized identities. Many autistic people also identify as gender diverse. However, it is largely unknown if or how autistic adults' perceptions of police differ by gender identity. We examined autistic adults' perceptions of policing, autism, and gender using an online questionnaire. Results revealed significant differences across gender groups (cis women, cis men, gender diverse) in perceptions of justice, comfort in disclosing diagnosis, helpfulness of diagnostic disclosure, influence of gender, and concern that one's autistic traits would be misperceived as dangerous. These findings align with widespread calls for police reform and suggest current policing practices likely do not meet the needs of all autistic individuals, particularly autistic cis women and gender diverse individuals, who are more likely to report their gender has influenced police interactions and more concerned that their autistic characteristics are being misperceived, relative to autistic cis men. Reducing the harm marginalized groups face because of systemic inequities in the current policing system is a critical need that could enhance safety for autistic individuals. Autistic people in the United States are at a higher risk of injury or death when they interact with the police. Research has shown that police often treat people from minoritized communities unfairly, and this can be even worse for people who belong to more than one minoritized group, like being both autistic and gender diverse. Many autistic people also identify as gender diverse. However, we do not yet know if autistic people's views of police may differ across gender identities. In this study, we explored how autistic adults view police and if those views differ across different gender identities. We found that autistic adults with different gender identities have different views on things like justice, how comfortable they feel telling police about their autism diagnosis, whether they think telling the police about their diagnosis would be helpful, how they think their gender affects police behavior, and whether they worry that their autistic traits might be seen as dangerous. These results may indicate that the current policing practices may not take into account autistic individuals' unique perspectives and experiences, particularly when police are interacting with autistic women and gender diverse people. It is important that we make changes to reduce the harm that autistic people face because of unfairness in the current policing system using feedback from autistic individuals. This could make things safer for all autistic people. Our results suggest it could be beneficial for police officers to receive training that is inclusive of the gender diversity within the autistic community, so they can better protect and respect all autistic people.</p> <p>Keywords: autism; gender diversity; law enforcement; police; policy</p> <p>In this article, we use terminology based on the World Health Organization definitions, such that the word "sex" refers to genetic makeup, and "gender" refers to a socio-cultural construct ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref1">59</reflink>]). In this study, participant sex was characterized using self-reported assigned sex assigned at birth. Participant gender was characterized using self-reported gender identity. We use the term "cisgender" to refer to individuals whose sex assigned at birth aligns with their gender identity, and "gender diverse" to refer to individuals whose gender identity varies from assumptions based on their sex assigned at birth ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref2">1</reflink>]). We affirm that sex and gender are not binary, nor interchangeable, and that many autistic individuals identify as transgender, non-binary, or gender diverse ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref3">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref4">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref5">52</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref6">51</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-2">Introduction</hd> <p>In the United States, autistic individuals are more likely to interact with police than the general population ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref7">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref8">43</reflink>]) and face increased risk of physical injury or death during police encounters ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref9">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref10">41</reflink>]). Autistic individuals are also more likely to identify as transgender, non-binary, or gender diverse than the general population ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref12">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref13">52</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref14">51</reflink>]), which could lead to even greater risk of harm during police interactions ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref15">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref16">50</reflink>]). To date, little is known about the intersecting effects of autism and gender on perceptions of police.</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-3">Autism and policing</hd> <p>Autistic individuals face elevated rates of police contact throughout adolescence and adulthood ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref18">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref19">43</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref20">45</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref21">55</reflink>]). Police encounters are stress-inducing for most people—regardless of their neurotype—due to the unpredictable outcomes that can result from commonly used aggressive policing strategies ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref22">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref23">18</reflink>]). Autistic characteristics such as repetitive motor or verbal "stimming" behaviors (e.g. pacing, hand flapping, repeating words/sounds), reduced eye contact, and sensory sensitivities are often amplified when autistic individuals are in distress ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref24">21</reflink>]). These observable behaviors can be misunderstood by police as suspicious, non-compliant, or resistant ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref25">57</reflink>]). Taken together, this highlights the need for more research on relationships between autistic people and police, to inform law enforcement practices and decrease negative outcomes.</p> <p>Studies of autistic individuals' perceptions of policing, conducted primarily in non-U.S. samples, report generally low satisfaction with police interactions ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref26">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref27">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref28">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref29">40</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref30">45</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref31">46</reflink>]). In a study of parents/caregivers of autistic individuals in the United States, 60% of respondents feared future police encounters for their autistic loved ones, citing concerns about misunderstanding, communication, and aggression ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref32">58</reflink>]). Qualitative research shows autistic adults frequently report unfair treatment by police, leading to distrust ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref33">23</reflink>]), with many describing encounters as confusing and negative ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref34">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref35">22</reflink>]). However, a study conducted in Canada found most parents/caregivers of autistic individuals were satisfied with their children's police encounters ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref36">54</reflink>]). Although research has posited disclosing an autism diagnosis during police encounters could reduce the likelihood of negative outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref37">15</reflink>]), autistic adults have reported reluctance to disclose their diagnosis due to stigma and perceived negative outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref38">53</reflink>]), which may vary significantly across contexts ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref39">35</reflink>]). Reports of police violence against autistic individuals in public media ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref40">10</reflink>]) likely contribute to feelings of distrust among autistic adults and their parents/caregivers ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref41">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref42">58</reflink>]).</p> <p>A survey of autistic adults examined their perceptions of procedural justice and police-led autism awareness campaigns in the United States ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref43">40</reflink>]). Female (<emph>N</emph> = 34) and gender diverse (<emph>N</emph> = 11) respondents reported significantly more negative perceptions of police than males, with gender diverse individuals expressing greater fear of police interactions. Perceptions of police and awareness efforts varied, highlighting the need to consider diversity within the autism community when exploring views on policing, as different facets of identity (e.g. sex and gender) may impact individuals' experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-4">Gender and police</hd> <p>Police officers discriminate against marginalized communities, particularly those who have multiple intersecting marginalized identities (e.g. race, ethnicity, gender; ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref44">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref45">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref46">33</reflink>]). However, studies rarely examine how police interactions differ for cis women and gender diverse people ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref47">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref48">24</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref49">27</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref50">34</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref51">44</reflink>]). Global research on cisgender women's and men's perceptions of police is mixed ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref52">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref53">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref54">56</reflink>]), likely due to other demographic factors that can influence individuals' perceptions of police, including race, education level, socioeconomic status, and geographic location ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref55">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref56">31</reflink>]). A handful of recent studies suggest gender diverse individuals perceive police more negatively, are less comfortable interacting with police, and face higher rates of police maltreatment than cisgender individuals ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref57">27</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref58">34</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref59">38</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref60">47</reflink>]). These perceptions are often linked to negative experiences with prior police encounters and can contribute to strained relationships between law enforcement officers' and the communities they serve ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref61">47</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref62">50</reflink>]). During police interactions, gender diverse individuals can face specific risks, including identity-related maltreatment, verbal harassment, and sexual violence ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref63">47</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref64">50</reflink>]). These gender-related risks are relevant for autistic people, who—as a group—are more likely to be gender diverse ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref65">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref66">52</reflink>]). Despite the risks faced by autistic individuals and gender diverse people during police encounters, little research has examined police perceptions of individuals with multiple intersecting marginalized identities, such as autistic cis women and gender diverse autistic people.</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-5">Current study</hd> <p>Given the limited research examining whether or how autistic adults' perceptions of police differ across gender ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref67">40</reflink>]), the goal of this study is to explore how autistic adults perceive police interactions in the United States, and test whether these perceptions differ by gender identity (i.e. cis women, cis men, gender diverse).</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-6">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193059416-7">Study design</hd> <p>We conducted a nationwide online survey-based study in the United States using REDCap to collect information about autistic adults' perceptions of police and compared responses across gender identity groups (see Supplemental Materials for additional details).</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-8">Participants</hd> <p>One hundred and eleven adult autistic adults (Table 1) completed an anonymous survey (one participant was excluded from analyses because they selected "prefer not to say" for the gender question). Participants reported sex assigned at birth (male/female/intersex) and gender identity (cis woman, cis man, nonbinary, transgender woman, transgender man, not listed (write-in option), prefer not to say).</p> <p>Table 1. Participant demographics.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" colspan="4">Gender identity</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">Effects</th></tr><tr><th /><th align="left">Cis women (<italic>N</italic> = 43)</th><th align="left">Cis men (<italic>N</italic> = 41)</th><th align="left">Gender diverse (<italic>N</italic> = 26)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sex Assigned at Birth, <italic>N</italic></td><td>Female: 43 Male: 0</td><td>Female: 0 Male: 41</td><td>Female: 25 Male: 1</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td>Age (years)</td><td>27.89 ± 9.0418–57</td><td>29.07 ± 12.0918–61</td><td>27.38 (9.85)18–42</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td>Race, <italic>N</italic> (%)</td><td>American Indian or Alaskan Native: 1 (2.33%) Asian: 2 (4.65%) Black or African American: 4 (9.30%) White: 35 (84.40%) Not Listed: 1 (2.33%)</td><td>American Indian or Alaskan Native: 1 (2.44%) Asian: 3 (7.32%) Black or African American: 12 (29.27%) White: 25 (60.98%) Not Listed: 0 (0%)</td><td>American Indian or Alaskan Native: 1 (3.85%) Asian: 3 (11.54%) Black or African American: 0 (0%) White: 20 (76.92%) Not Listed: 2 (7.69%)</td><td>χ2 = 16.70<italic>p</italic> = 0.03</td></tr><tr><td>Ethnicity</td><td>Hispanic or Latino: 2 (4.65%) Not Hispanic or Latino: 40 (93.0%) Not Reported: 1 (2.33%)</td><td>Hispanic or Latino: 7 (17.07%) Not Hispanic or Latino: 34 (92.93%) Not Reported: 0 (0%)</td><td>Hispanic or Latino: 3 (11.54%) Not Hispanic or Latino: 22 (84.62%) Not Reported: 1 (3.85%)</td><td>χ2 = 4.65<italic>p</italic> = 0.33</td></tr><tr><td>Household Income (US$)</td><td>0–30,999: 16 (37.20%)31,000–60,999: 12 (27.90%)61,000–90,999: 9 (20.93%)>91,000: 6 (13.95%)</td><td>0–30,999: 9 (21.95%)31,000–60,999: 8 (19.51%)61,000–90,999: 8 (19.51%)>91,000: 16 (39.02%)</td><td>0–30,999: 16 (61.54%)31,000–60,999: 6 (23.08%)61,000–90,999: 1 (2.85%)>91,000: 3 (11.54%)</td><td>χ2 = 18.29<italic>p</italic> = 0.01</td></tr><tr><td>Education</td><td>No Schooling Completed: 0 (0%) Nursery School to Eighth Grade: 0 (0%) Some High School: 3 (6.98%) High School Graduate or Equivalent: 9 (20.93%) Trade/Technical/Vocational Training: 3 (6.98%) Associate's Degree: 2 (4.65%) Some College, No Degree: 10 (23.26%) Bachelor's Degree: 9 (20.93%) Master's Degree: 5 (11.63%) Doctoral Degree: 2 (4.65%)</td><td>No Schooling Completed: 3 (7.32%) Nursery School to Eighth Grade: 1 (2.44%) Some High School: 4 (9.76%) High School Graduate or Equivalent: 7 (17.07%) Trade/Technical/Vocational Training: 3 (7.32%) Associate's Degree: 3 (7.32%) Some College, No Degree: 4 (9.76%) Bachelor's Degree: 6 (14.63%) Master's Degree: 10 (24.39%) Doctoral Degree: 0 (0%)</td><td>No Schooling Completed: 0 (0%) Nursery School to Eighth Grade: 0 (0%) Some High School: 2 (7.69%) High School Graduate or Equivalent: 4 (15.38%) Trade/Technical/Vocational Training: 0 (0%) Associate's Degree: 4 (15.38%) Some College, No Degree: 6 (23.08%) Bachelor's Degree: 8 (30.77%) Master's Degree: 2 (7.69%) Doctoral Degree: 0 (0%)</td><td>χ2 = 22.65<italic>p</italic> = 0.20</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> For age, means, standard deviation, and range are presented. For race not listed, participants provided free-text responses that indicated their race as "Asian American," "Caribbean Native," and "Puerto Rican."</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-9">Measures</hd> <p>After providing consent, participants completed a brief demographic form and questions related to their perception of policing, autism, and gender. Participants answered nine forced-choice questions (Table 2). A free-text box was available after each question to allow participants to provide additional information if they wanted to, but this was not required. Survey questions were created for the purposes of this study.</p> <p>Table 2. Fisher's exact test results of survey items.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th /><th /><th align="left" colspan="3">Gender identity (<italic>N</italic> = 110)</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">Fisher's exact test(<italic>p</italic>-value)</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">Effect size (Cramer's <italic>V</italic>)</th></tr><tr><th /><th /><th align="left">Cis women(<italic>N</italic> = 43, 39.09%)</th><th align="left">Cis men(<italic>N</italic> = 41, 37.27%)</th><th align="left">Gender diverse(<italic>N</italic> = 26, 26.64%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Q1: Have you interacted with the police?</td><td>No</td><td>2 (4.65%)</td><td>6 (14.63%)</td><td>3 (11.54%)</td><td rowspan="2">0.305</td><td rowspan="2">0.148</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>41 (95.35%)</td><td>35 (85.37%)</td><td>23 (88.46%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Q2: Are you comfortable telling police officers you are autistic?</td><td>No</td><td>17 (39.53%)</td><td>10 (24.39%)</td><td>17 (65.38%)</td><td rowspan="3"><0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td><td rowspan="3">0.323</td></tr><tr><td>Sometimes</td><td>12 (27.91%)</td><td>4 (9.76%)</td><td>6 (23.08%)</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>14 (32.56%)</td><td>27 (65.85%)</td><td>3 (11.54%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Q3: Do you think telling police officers about an autism diagnosis would be helpful or harmful to the situation?</td><td>Don't know</td><td>22 (51.16%)</td><td>14 (34.15%)</td><td>18 (69.23%)</td><td rowspan="3"><0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td><td rowspan="3">0.299</td></tr><tr><td>Harmful</td><td>3 (6.98%)</td><td>1 (2.44%)</td><td>5 (19.23%)</td></tr><tr><td>Helpful</td><td>18 (41.86%)</td><td>26 (63.41%)</td><td>3 (11.54%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Q4: Do you think police officers are aware of the different skills needed when interacting with autistic individuals?</td><td>No</td><td>32 (74.42%)</td><td>31 (75.61%)</td><td>24 (92.31%)</td><td rowspan="2">0.163</td><td rowspan="2">0.181</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>11 (25.58%)</td><td>10 (24.39%)</td><td>2 (7.69%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Q5: Are you worried that autistic characteristics might be perceived by police officers as dangerous or suspicious behavior?</td><td>No</td><td>3 (6.98%)</td><td>11 (26.83%)</td><td>1 (3.85%)</td><td rowspan="2">0.010<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td rowspan="2">0.298</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>40 (93.02%)</td><td>30 (73.17%)</td><td>25 (96.15%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Q6: Do you think your autism diagnosis has influenced your interactions with police officers?</td><td>No</td><td>20 (46.51%)</td><td>24 (58.54%)</td><td>9 (34.62%)</td><td rowspan="2">0.161</td><td rowspan="2">0.184</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>23 (53.49%)</td><td>17 (41.46%)</td><td>17 (62.38%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Q7: Do you think your gender has influenced your interactions with police officers?</td><td>No</td><td>21 (48.84%)</td><td>37 (90.24%)</td><td>14 (53.85%)</td><td rowspan="2"><0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td><td rowspan="2">0.404</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>22 (51.16%)</td><td>4 (9.76%)</td><td>12 (46.15%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Q8: Do you feel that your police department works to provide justice equally to all people?</td><td>No</td><td>26 (60.47%)</td><td>16 (39.02%)</td><td>21 (96.15%)</td><td rowspan="2"><0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td><td rowspan="2">0.445</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>17 (39.53%)</td><td>25 (60.98%)</td><td>1 (3.85%)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Q9: Do you think police officers should promote autistic outreach and autistic community building?</td><td>No</td><td>6 (13.95%)</td><td>7 (17.07%)</td><td>11 (42.31%)</td><td rowspan="2">0.021<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td rowspan="2">0.278</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>35 (86.05%)</td><td>34 (82.93%)</td><td>15 (57.69%)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>2 <emph>Note.</emph> This table presents the count and percentages of participants that responded to various questions in the survey according to gender of the participant, and the Fisher's Exact Test <emph>p</emph>-values within a question across gender of participants.</item> <item>3 <emph>p</emph> <.05. **<emph>p</emph> <.001.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0193059416-10">Statistical approach and data analysis</hd> <p>Descriptive statistics were calculated and Fisher's exact tests compared questionnaire responses by gender group using the stats package in R (v4.2.1) ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref68">42</reflink>]). For analyses, gender was grouped into three categories: cis women, cis men, and gender diverse (which included individuals who identified as nonbinary, transgender women, transgender men, gender fluid, agender, and demi-girl). This approach is consistent with the framework used in prior research ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref69">47</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-11">Participatory methods</hd> <p>In addition to neurotypical people, our team included neurodivergent individuals and non-autistic stakeholders (i.e. autism-focused clinicians and family members of autistic people) who provided insights based on their personal and professional experiences. Team members participated in all phases of research including study design, data collection, analyses, interpretation of results, and manuscript preparation.</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-12">Results</hd> <p>Most participants (90%) reported having interacted with police (Table 2). Approximately half (52%) reported their diagnosis influenced their interactions with police. The majority (79%) felt police officers lack the necessary skills to interact safely with autistic individuals. Responses to these questions did not differ by gender (all <emph>ps</emph> > 0.16). When asked whether their gender influenced their interactions with police, only 9.8% of autistic cis men responded "Yes." However, 51% of autistic cis women and 46% of gender diverse autistic participants responded "Yes," indicating that their gender was a significant factor during police interactions. These group differences were significant (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001).</p> <p>There was a significant effect of gender on participants' level of comfort disclosing their diagnosis to police (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001). 66% of cis men reportedly felt comfortable disclosing their diagnosis; only 33% of cis women and 12% of gender diverse autistic participants did. Significantly more cis men (63%) believed that telling police officers about their diagnosis would be helpful, compared to 42% of cis women and 12% of gender diverse participants (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001). 86% of participants worried their autistic traits would be perceived as dangerous or suspicious by police; this was significantly amplified for cis women (93%) and gender diverse (96%) participants relative to cis men (73%; <emph>p</emph> = 0.01). 61% of cis men, 40% of cis women, and 4% of gender diverse participants reportedly believed police departments provide justice equally to all people (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001). 78% of autistic participants reportedly believed police officers should promote autistic outreach and community building. This was significantly more common in cis women (86%) and cis men (83%) compared to gender diverse participants (58%; <emph>p</emph> = 0.02). Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons resulted in an alpha level of 0.005; 4/6 Fisher's exact tests remained significant.</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-13">Discussion</hd> <p>The promise of America—<emph>liberty and justice for all</emph>—demands that police uphold their duty to serve and protect people equitably. In this study, we found evidence that autistic individuals' experiences and perceptions of police differ by gender. Our results demonstrated that compared to autistic cis men, autistic cis women and gender diverse individuals were less likely to believe police provide justice equally, less comfortable when interacting with police, and less likely to disclose their diagnosis. This suggests individuals with multiple marginalized identities (i.e. autistic and gender diverse) may experience persistent concerns about police and might feel the need to conceal their autistic characteristics and diagnosis, in part, due to safety concerns. Cis women and gender diverse individuals reported elevated concerns about their autistic traits being misperceived by police and worries about experiencing harm, potentially due to their identity. These findings provide preliminary insights into how autistic individuals may perceive their diagnosis and gender could influence their police interactions, with cis women and gender diverse people facing unique challenges. This underscores the importance of exploring the police experiences of people with multiple marginalized identities in future research.</p> <p>At the individual level, our results suggest that autistic people who identify as cis women or gender diverse are less confident in police and perceive greater risk during police interactions compared to cis men. This aligns with prior research in both general ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref70">47</reflink>]) and autistic populations ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref71">40</reflink>]). Given that negative perceptions of police can influence individuals' willingness to engage with law enforcement ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref72">37</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref73">38</reflink>]), it is possible that cis women or gender diverse autistic individuals may call for police assistance less often, even in violent situations that warrant intervention, which could serve to further endanger vulnerable communities.</p> <p>At the societal level, our results align with widespread calls for police reform and suggest the current system of policing in the United States likely does not adequately address the needs of autistic citizens ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref74">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref75">49</reflink>]). Participants of all genders agreed that police officers do not possess the skills needed to interact safely with autistic individuals and that being autistic can influence police encounters. However, within the autistic group, cis women and gender diverse individuals had elevated patterns of concerns related to police, potentially due to complexities surrounding the intersection of disability and gender identity. This may also be related to increased camouflaging in autistic women ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref76">28</reflink>]) and gender diverse individuals ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref77">36</reflink>]). Our results underscore a need to (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref78">1</reflink>) fundamentally re-examine our policing practices while implementing autism-specific education for police officers as an initial step in affecting change and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref79">2</reflink>) increase police officers' awareness of the unique concerns of autistic women and gender diverse people. Educational efforts could include a focus on gender in autism; for example, police should know that autism is increasingly common in cis women and that autistic adults are more likely to identify as gender diverse. Improving police officers' abilities to recognize that some behaviors (e.g. reduced eye contact, stimming) may indicate autism—rather than suspicious or criminal behavior—in adults of <emph>all</emph> gender presentations could potentially help to allay autistic individuals' concerns about their behavior being misinterpreted by police ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref80">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref81">58</reflink>]). However, even with extensive training, police reactions to individuals with diverse gender expressions may still be influenced by societal and cultural norms, which could be slower to change ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref82">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref83">48</reflink>]). More observational studies exploring the role and impact of gender in police interactions with autistic people, and intervention studies focused on identifying what changes are needed to improve experiences and trust in autistic women and gender diverse people, are urgently needed.</p> <p>Several limitations should be considered. 90% of participants reported previously interacting with police. This percentage is significantly higher than what has been reported in the extant literature ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref84">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref85">43</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref86">54</reflink>]) and may have resulted from self-selection bias. This study did not assess the reason for participants' police interactions, which could have impacted their perceptions of police. Future research should utilize mixed methods to explore the context in which individuals interacted with police (e.g. as victims, suspects, witnesses, or community-based encounters) to better understand how different types of encounters could influence autistic adults' perceptions of police and potentially identify areas for intervention. Qualitative methods could also be used to gather more nuanced and detailed information about individuals' perspectives and experiences, and to provide context for the results of this study, particularly around the potential costs and benefits of diagnostic disclosure. The sample size included in our study was small and focused exclusively on autistic adults. Future research with autistic youth and older adults is needed to understand experiences across the lifespan. Our study required individuals to complete online surveys, which likely limited inclusion of autistic people with significant intellectual disabilities. Therefore, our results may not generalize to this population. Future studies should utilize methods that are accessible to individuals of varying cognitive abilities and/or digital literacy levels. Although the survey questions utilized in this study were informally piloted prior to data collection, future research should employ more rigorous piloting procedures to empirically validate the measure and evaluate the wording of survey items. Given our small sample, we were not statistically powered to explore the impact of other individual factors (e.g. race/ethnicity, age, geographic region, and socioeconomic status) on perceptions of policing. Future research on these topics is urgently needed ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref87">60</reflink>]).</p> <p>This study explored <emph>internal</emph> gender identity and did not examine effects of gender presentation (e.g. clothing and hairstyles) on perceptions of police interactions. Gender identity is nuanced, and may or may not converge with outward gender expression (e.g. Gender Unicorn; [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref88">39</reflink>]). Although we examined individuals' perceptions of police according to their self-reported internal gender identities, it is the <emph>outward expression</emph> of gender that may spark bias and differential treatment by police ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref89">37</reflink>]). Future research on police perceptions of autistic individuals' gender presentations, similar to research focused on implicit bias in police officers when viewing faces of different races ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref90">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref91">20</reflink>]), could provide insight into potential relationships between these factors. Arguably the most urgent future direction is to develop police-focused interventions that reduce harm to autistic people, including marginalized subgroups within the larger autistic community. Research on the intersection of policing, autism, and gender should be conducted with the goal of identifying gaps in police training, reducing risks in police interactions, and creating policy improvements to address the inequities and harm that autistic cis women and gender diverse individuals face during police encounters.</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-14">Conclusion</hd> <p>Our results align with calls for culturally responsive police reform centering autistic voices ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref92">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref93">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref94">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref95">49</reflink>]). We found heightened concerns about equal justice in law enforcement, utility of disclosing an autism diagnosis to police, and perceived influence of gender and autistic traits on police behavior among autistic cis women and gender diverse individuals. This underscores the importance of addressing gender when developing police guidelines, in addition to conducting research on the impact of gender differences on police encounters and identifying interventions to address the concerns of autistic women and gender diverse individuals. Without targeted research and reforms informed by community members, it is likely that current systemic inequities will persist. This study offers initial insights from autistic adults in the United States, but more research is needed to reduce systemic injustice and promote equitable policies for autistic women and gender diverse individuals. Indexing marginalized communities' perceptions of police can ultimately help guide policies, practices, interventions, and research that protects and respects the full humanity of all autistic people.</p> <hd id="AN0193059416-15">Supplemental Material</hd> <p>Graph: Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-aut-10.1177_13623613251395539 for Short report: Autistic adults' perceptions of gender, autism, and policing in the United States by Meredith Cola, Aili Hauptmann, Alison Russell, Dieu M Truong, Ashlee Yates Flanagan, Kimberly G Tena, Juan Pacheco, Ashley Zitter, Azia Knox, Maggie Rose Pelella, Lizzy Fulop, Maxine Covello, Amanda Lee, Margaret Lyons, Sarah Schillinger, Rita Solórzano, Sinan Turnacioglu, Vijay Ravindran, Judith S Miller, Joseph P McCleery and Julia Parish-Morris in Autism</p> <p>We thank the individuals and families who participated in this research, as well as students, interns, volunteers, postdocs, clinicians, and administrative staff at the Center for Autism Research.</p> <ref id="AN0193059416-16"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref2" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Meredith Cola</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref55" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6737-6828 Dieu M Truong</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref52" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>Graph</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref9" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9339-3100 Ashlee Yates Flanagan</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref47" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>Graph</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref34" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8428-2820 Ashley Zitter</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref44" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>Graph</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref7" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5759-081X Amanda Lee</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref74" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>Graph</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib10" idref="ref40" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>https://orcid.org/0009-0004-3973-6338 Sarah Schillinger</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib11" idref="ref3" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>Graph</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib12" idref="ref82" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>https://orcid.org/0009-0002-9842-7418 Joseph P McCleery</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib13" idref="ref90" type="bt"></bibl> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3963-9958</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The Institutional Review Board of the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia provided approval and oversight for this study. All participants provided consent to participate in the study.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Meredith Cola: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.Aili Hauptmann: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Project administration, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.Alison Russell: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Project administration, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.Dieu M Truong: Conceptualization, Investigation, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Ashlee Yates Flanagan: Conceptualization, Investigation, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Kimberly G Tena: Conceptualization, Investigation, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Juan Pacheco: Conceptualization, Investigation, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Ashley Zitter: Investigation, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Azia Knox: Conceptualization, Investigation, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Maggie Rose Pelella: Conceptualization, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Lizzy Fulop: Conceptualization, Data curation, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Maxine Covello: Conceptualization, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Amanda Lee: Conceptualization, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Margaret Lyons: Conceptualization, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Sarah Schillinger: Conceptualization, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Rita Solórzano: Conceptualization, Project administration, Validation, Writing—review & editing.Sinan Turnacioglu: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Writing—review & editing.Vijay Ravindran: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Software, Writing—review & editing.Judith S Miller: Conceptualization, Investigation, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Writing—review & editing.Joseph P McCleery: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing—review & editing.Julia Parish-Morris: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study was supported by The Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center (IDDRC) at CHOP/Penn; P50HD105354 (PI: Schultz), CHOP, and our funders: NIH STTR R42MH115539 (MPIs: Ravindran & Parish-Morris); McMorris Family Foundation (PIs: Parish-Morris & McCleery).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The authors declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Rita Solórzano, Sinan Turnacioglu, and Vijay Ravindran are employed by Floreo Inc., and Joseph McCleery is a paid consultant.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available. Requests to access the dataset should be directed to the final author.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Supplemental material for this article is available online.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> * These authors contributed equally to this work.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0193059416-17"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> American Psychological Association. (2022). Gender. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/bias-free-language/gender</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Benton M. (2020). Representation is not enough: Symbolic representation and perceptions of the police. Administration & Society, 52(5), 794–822. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399720905368</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bolger M. A., Lytle D. J., Bolger P. C. (2021). What matters in citizen satisfaction with police: A meta-analysis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 72, 101760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101760</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bronson J., Berzofsky M. (2015). Disabilities among prison and jail inmates, 2011–12. U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/dpji1112.pdf</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Buist C. L., Stone C. (2014). Transgender victims and offenders: Failures of the United States criminal justice system and the necessity of queer criminology. Critical Criminology, 22(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-013-9224-1</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Calton S., Hall G. (2022). Autistic adults and their experiences with police personnel: A qualitative inquiry. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 29(2), 274–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2021.1904455</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Camp N. P., Voigt R., Jurafsky D., Eberhardt J. L. (2021). The thin blue waveform: Racial disparities in officer prosody undermine institutional trust in the police. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 121(6), 1157–1171. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000270</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cooper D., Frisbie S., Wang S., Ventimiglia J., Gibbs V., Love A. M. A., Mogavero M., Benevides T. W., Hyatt J. M., Hooven K., Basketbill I., Shea L. (2024). What do we know about autism and policing globally? Preliminary findings from an international effort to examine autism and the criminal justice system. Autism Research, 17, 2133–2143. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.3203</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cooper D., Uppal D., Railey K. S., Blank Wilson A., Maras K., Zimmerman E., Bornman J., Shea L. L. (2022). Policy gaps and opportunities: A systematic review of autism spectrum disorder and criminal justice intersections. Autism, 26(5), 1014–1031. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211070341</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Copenhaver A., Tewksbury R. (2019). Interactions between autistic individuals and law enforcement: A mixed-methods exploratory study. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 44(2), 309–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-018-9452-8</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Corbett B. A., Muscatello R. A., Klemencic M. E., West M., Kim A., Strang J. F. (2023). Greater gender diversity among autistic children by self-report and parent-report. Autism, 27, 158–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613221085337</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Corredor E. S. (2019). Unpacking "gender ideology" and the global right's antigender countermovement. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 44(3), 613–638. https://doi.org/10.1086/701171</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Correll J., Urland G. R., Ito T. A. (2006). Event-related potentials and the decision to shoot: The role of threat perception and cognitive control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(1), 120–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.02.006</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Crane L., Maras K. L., Hawken T., Mulcahy S., Memon A. (2016). Experiences of autism spectrum disorder and policing in England and Wales: Surveying police and the autism community. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(6), 2028–2041. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2729-1</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Davenport M. A., Romero M. E., Lewis C. D., Lawson T., Ferguson B., Stichter J., Kahng S. (2023). An initial development and evaluation of a culturally responsive police interactions training for black adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(4), 1375–1390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05181-8</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Dusto A. (2022, March 9). The physical and mental impact of contact with police. Hopkins Bloomberg Public Health. https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2022/the-physical-and-mental-impact-of-contact-with-police</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ellem K., Richards K. (2018). Police contact with young people with cognitive disabilities: Perceptions of procedural (in)justice. Youth Justice, 18(3), 230–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473225418794357</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Esposito M., Larimore S., Lee H. (2021). Aggressive policing, health, and health equity. Health Affairs Brief. https://<ulink href="http://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hpb20210412.997570/full/">www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hpb20210412.997570/full/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fileborn B. (2019). Policing youth and queerness: The experiences and perceptions of young LGBTQ+ people from regional Victoria. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 31(3), 433–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2019.1633727</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fridell L. A. (2017). The science of implicit bias and implications for policing. In Fridell L. A. (Ed.), Producing bias-free policing: A science-based approach (pp. 7–30). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33175-1_2</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fuld S. (2018). Autism spectrum disorder: The impact of stressful and traumatic life events and implications for clinical practice. Clinical Social Work Journal, 46(3), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-018-0649-6</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gibbs V., Haas K. (2020). Interactions between the police and the autistic community in Australia: Experiences and perspectives of autistic adults and parents/carers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(12), 4513–4526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04510-7</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gibbs V., Love A. M. A., Cai R. Y., Haas K. (2023). Police interactions and the autistic community: Perceptions of procedural justice. Disability & Society, 38, 1608–1625. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2021.2007359</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Grant J., Mottet L., Tanis J., Harrison J., Herman J., Keisling M. (2011). Injustice at every turn: A report of the national transgender discrimination survey. National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/31122982/NTDS_Report-libre.pdf?1392217702=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DInjustice_at_Every_Turn_The_Report_of_th.pdf&Expires=1725908020&Signature=e9M-IilFCru3UE~YjtpTNXUpxDsjHKnCIKOTsXW-1lXEIqjC4JIt6bWGk6qWGnxTVgRzbQirqOctyECRXrL7Hyiwn78CneEybSn1AbrBEBTJCzE9DgY0bTQAfZhxRdgABNn0VnYcSKSoCM36CQD1L-zZcmCJycDlGxNgCdG5Du7UVSqGC6FUXaEuwstRAHNrphctlQMxTLrsHw5sI2oJ1n9hdLNXfzfEhtB0PwNake6H87VxZvVAtow84pupbu4eJzbguiR2RX4ODB9Ww-vQLZTjiB4qdCwM4QAM-3PZgNE3eGCoHe3VQ8USWwpb~qhMI5J6wb4lxZTbT52BEWGuzA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Haas K., Gibbs V. (2021). Does a person's autism play a role in their interactions with police: The perceptions of autistic adults and parent/carers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(5), 1628–1640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04663-5</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Haberman C. P., Groff E. R., Ratcliffe J. H., Sorg E. T. (2016). Satisfaction with police in violent crime hot spots: Using community surveys as a guide for selecting hot spots policing tactics. Crime & Delinquency, 62(4), 525–557. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128713516840</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hodge J. P., Sexton L. (2020). Examining the blue line in the rainbow: The interactions and perceptions of law enforcement among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer communities. Police Practice and Research, 21(3), 246–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2018.1526686</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hull L., Lai M.-C., Baron-Cohen S., Allison C., Smith P., Petrides K., Mandy W. (2020). Gender differences in self-reported camouflaging in autistic and non-autistic adults. Autism, 24(2), 352–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361319864804</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hutson T. M., McGhee Hassrick E., Fernandes S., Walton J., Bouvier-Weinberg K., Radcliffe A., Allen-Handy A. (2022). "I'm just different–that's all–I'm so sorry.. ": Black men, ASD and the urgent need for DisCrit Theory in police encounters. Policing: An International Journal, 45(3), 524–537. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-10-2021-0149</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Janssen A., Huang H., Duncan C. (2016). Gender variance among youth with autism spectrum disorders: A retrospective chart review. Transgender Health, 1(1), 63–68. https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2015.0007</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Jones J. (2013, December 16). Honesty ratings of police, clergy differ most by party. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/166487/honesty-ratings-police-clergy-differ-party.aspx</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Koffer Miller K. H., Becker A., Cooper D., Shea L. (2022). Justice system interactions among autistic individuals: A multiple methods analysis. Crime & Delinquency, 68(9), 1579–1603. https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287211054733</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lipperman-Kreda S., Wilson I., Hunt G. P., Annechino R., Antin T. M. J. (2020). Substance use among sexual and gender minorities: Association with police discrimination and police mistrust. Sexuality, Gender & Policy, 3(2), 92–104. https://doi.org/10.1002/sgp2.12019</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lloyd A. E., Fountain E. N. (2023). Measuring trans youths' perceptions of police and police bias: Exploring the use of the perceptions of police scale. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 29(3), 336–348. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000385</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Love A. M. A., Cai R. Y., Edwards C., Gibbs V. (2023). Exploring identity importance for autistic adults and associations with disclosure experiences: A brief report. Autism in Adulthood, 5, 450–456. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2023.0005</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> McQuaid G. A., Lee N. R., Wallace G. L. (2021). Camouflaging in autism spectrum disorder: Examining the roles of sex, gender identity and diagnostic timing. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/frbj3</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Nadal K. L., Quintanilla A., Goswick A., Sriken J. (2015). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people's perceptions of the criminal justice system: Implications for social services. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 27(4), 457–481. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2015.1085116</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Owen S. S., Burke T. W., Few-Demo A. L., Natwick J. (2018). Perceptions of the police by LGBT communities. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(3), 668–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9420-8</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pan L., Moore A. (2023). Gender unicorn. Trans Student Educational Resources. https://transstudent.org/gender/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Parry M. M., Huff J. (2022). Divergent perspectives: Autistic adults' perceptions of the police. Policing: An International Journal, 45(3), 509–523. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-10-2021-0144</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Perry D. M., Carter-Long L. (2016). The Ruderman white paper on media coverage of law enforcement use of force and disability. https://rudermanfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/MediaStudy-PoliceDisability_final-final.pdf</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> R Core Team. (2021). R: The R project for statistical computing [Computer software]. https://<ulink href="http://www.r-project.org/">www.r-project.org/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rava J., Shattuck P., Rast J., Roux A. (2017). The prevalence and correlates of involvement in the criminal justice system among youth on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(2), 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2958-3</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ritchie A. J., Jones-Brown D. (2017). Policing race, gender, and sex: A review of law enforcement policies. Women & Criminal Justice, 27(1), 21–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2016.1259599</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Salerno A. C., Schuller R. A. (2019). A mixed-methods study of police experiences of adults with autism spectrum disorder in Canada. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 64, 18–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2019.01.002</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Salerno-Ferraro A. C., Schuller R. A. (2020). Perspectives from the ASD community on police interactions: Challenges & recommendations. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 105, 103732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103732</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Serpe C. R., Nadal K. L. (2017). Perceptions of police: Experiences in the trans* community. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 29(3), 280–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2017.1319777</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shabbir M. S., Hussain M., Bilal D. M., Zaid D. R., Rauf A., Nasarullah A. (2025). Gender-diverse identity and social acceptance in conservative societies. Contemporary Journal of Social Science Review, 3(2), 1685–1698. https://doi.org/10.63878/cjssr.v3i2.788</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shea L. L., Cooper D., Wilson A. B. (2021). Preventing and improving interactions between autistic individuals and the criminal justice system: A roadmap for research. Autism Research, 14(10), 2053–2060. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2594</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stenersen M. R., Thomas K., McKee S. (2022). Police and transgender and gender diverse people in the United States: A brief note on interaction, harassment, and violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(23–24), NP23527–NP23540. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211072161</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Strang J. F., Janssen A., Tishelman A., Leibowitz S. F., Kenworthy L., McGuire J. K., Edwards-Leeper L., Mazefsky C. A., Rofey D., Bascom J., Caplan R., Gomez-Lobo V., Berg D., Zaks Z., Wallace G. L., Wimms H., Pine-Twaddell E., Shumer D., Register-Brown K...Anthony L. G. (2018). Revisiting the link: Evidence of the rates of autism in studies of gender diverse individuals. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 57(11), 885–887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.04.023</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Strang J. F., Kenworthy L., Dominska A., Sokoloff J., Kenealy L. E., Berl M., Walsh K., Menvielle E., Slesaransky-Poe G., Kim K.-E., Luong-Tran C., Meagher H., Wallace G. L. (2014). Increased gender variance in autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(8), 1525–1533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0285-3</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Thompson-Hodgetts S., Labonte C., Mazumder R., Phelan S. (2020). Helpful or harmful? A scoping review of perceptions and outcomes of autism diagnostic disclosure to others. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 77, 101598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2020.101598</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tint A., Palucka A. M., Bradley E., Weiss J. A., Lunsky Y. (2017). Correlates of police involvement among adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(9), 2639–2647. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3182-5</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tint A., Palucka A. M., Bradley E., Weiss J. A., Lunsky Y. (2019). Emergency service experiences of adults with autism spectrum disorder without intellectual disability. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 23(3), 792–795. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361318760294</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Trinkner R., Rodrigues H., Piccirillo D., Gifford F. E., Gomes A. M. M. (2020). Legal socialisation in Brazil: Examining the generalisability of the procedural justice model. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 44(1–2), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2019.1587710</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wallace D., Herbert J., McGhee H. E., Kabourek S. E. (2022). The frequency and clustering of autism-related behaviors during encounters between the police and the autism community. Policing: An International Journal, 45(3), 403–420. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-10-2021-0141</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wallace D., Herbert J., Tyler D., McGee-Hassrick E. (2021). Interactions between individuals on the autism spectrum and the police: The fears of parents, caregivers, and professionals. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 15(2), 950–964. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paaa059</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> World Health Organization. (2015). Fact sheet on gender: Key facts, impact on health, gender equality in health and WHO response. <ulink href="http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/gender">http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/gender</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yates Flanagan A., Cola M., Yu N., Peele H., Dicette K., Hicks G., Pelella M. R., King-Pointer A., Owens J., Truong D. M., Hauptmann A., Pacheco J., Russell A., Lee A., Schillinger S., Covello M., Lyons M., Solórzano R., Turnacioglu S... Parish-Morris J. (2025). Policing Black autistic children: A qualitative approach to understanding Black caregivers' concerns. Autism, 29, 1303–1317. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613241303549</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Meredith Cola; Aili Hauptmann; Alison Russell; Dieu M Truong; Ashlee Yates Flanagan; Kimberly G Tena; Juan Pacheco; Ashley Zitter; Azia Knox; Maggie Rose Pelella; Lizzy Fulop; Maxine Covello; Amanda Lee; Margaret Lyons; Sarah Schillinger; Rita Solórzano; Sinan Turnacioglu; Vijay Ravindran; Judith S Miller; Joseph P McCleery and Julia Parish-Morris</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref91"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1503233
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Short Report: Autistic Adults' Perceptions of Gender, Autism, and Policing in the United States
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Meredith+Cola%22">Meredith Cola</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6737-6828">0000-0001-6737-6828</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Aili+Hauptmann%22">Aili Hauptmann</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alison+Russell%22">Alison Russell</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Dieu+M%2E+Truong%22">Dieu M. Truong</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9339-3100">0000-0002-9339-3100</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ashlee+Yates+Flanagan%22">Ashlee Yates Flanagan</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8428-2820">0000-0002-8428-2820</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kimberly+G%2E+Tena%22">Kimberly G. Tena</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Juan+Pacheco%22">Juan Pacheco</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ashley+Zitter%22">Ashley Zitter</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5759-081X">0000-0002-5759-081X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Azia+Knox%22">Azia Knox</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maggie+Rose+Pelella%22">Maggie Rose Pelella</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lizzy+Fulop%22">Lizzy Fulop</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maxine+Covello%22">Maxine Covello</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Amanda+Lee%22">Amanda Lee</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0004-3973-6338">0009-0004-3973-6338</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Margaret+Lyons%22">Margaret Lyons</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sarah+Schillinger%22">Sarah Schillinger</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0002-9842-7418">0009-0002-9842-7418</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rita+Solórzano%22">Rita Solórzano</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sinan+Turnacioglu%22">Sinan Turnacioglu</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Vijay+Ravindran%22">Vijay Ravindran</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Judith+S%2E+Miller%22">Judith S. Miller</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Joseph+P%2E+McCleery%22">Joseph P. McCleery</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3963-9958">0000-0002-3963-9958</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Julia+Parish-Morris%22">Julia Parish-Morris</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Autism%3A+The+International+Journal+of+Research+and+Practice%22"><i>Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice</i></searchLink>. 2026 30(5):1368-1377.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 10
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: SourceSuprt
  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (DHHS/NIH)<br />National Institutes of Health (NIH) (DHHS)
– Name: NumberContract
  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: P50HD105354<br />R42MH115539
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism+Spectrum+Disorders%22">Autism Spectrum Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adults%22">Adults</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22At+Risk+Persons%22">At Risk Persons</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Police+Community+Relationship%22">Police Community Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Identity%22">Gender Identity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attitudes%22">Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Police%22">Police</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Justice%22">Justice</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Disclosure+%28Individuals%29%22">Self Disclosure (Individuals)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Symptoms+%28Individual+Disorders%29%22">Symptoms (Individual Disorders)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Law+Enforcement%22">Law Enforcement</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1177/13623613251395539
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1362-3613<br />1461-7005
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Autistic individuals face increased risk during police interactions in the United States, including injury and death. Research shows police behave inequitably during interactions with marginalized communities and may behave even more inequitably toward individuals with multiple minoritized identities. Many autistic people also identify as gender diverse. However, it is largely unknown if or how autistic adults' perceptions of police differ by gender identity. We examined autistic adults' perceptions of policing, autism, and gender using an online questionnaire. Results revealed significant differences across gender groups (cis women, cis men, gender diverse) in perceptions of justice, comfort in disclosing diagnosis, helpfulness of diagnostic disclosure, influence of gender, and concern that one's autistic traits would be misperceived as dangerous. These findings align with widespread calls for police reform and suggest current policing practices likely do not meet the needs of all autistic individuals, particularly autistic cis women and gender diverse individuals, who are more likely to report their gender has influenced police interactions and more concerned that their autistic characteristics are being misperceived, relative to autistic cis men. Reducing the harm marginalized groups face because of systemic inequities in the current policing system is a critical need that could enhance safety for autistic individuals.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1503233
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1503233
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/13623613251395539
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 10
        StartPage: 1368
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Autism Spectrum Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adults
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: At Risk Persons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Police Community Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Identity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Police
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Justice
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Disclosure (Individuals)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Symptoms (Individual Disorders)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Law Enforcement
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Short Report: Autistic Adults' Perceptions of Gender, Autism, and Policing in the United States
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Meredith Cola
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Aili Hauptmann
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Alison Russell
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Dieu M. Truong
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ashlee Yates Flanagan
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kimberly G. Tena
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Juan Pacheco
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ashley Zitter
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Azia Knox
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Maggie Rose Pelella
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lizzy Fulop
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Maxine Covello
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Amanda Lee
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Margaret Lyons
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sarah Schillinger
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Rita Solórzano
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sinan Turnacioglu
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Vijay Ravindran
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Judith S. Miller
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Joseph P. McCleery
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Julia Parish-Morris
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 05
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1362-3613
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1461-7005
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 30
            – Type: issue
              Value: 5
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice
              Type: main
ResultId 1