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A Handy Tool: Using Fingers as a Numerical Representation Specifically Benefits Lower Performers in Kindergarten Mathematics

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Title: A Handy Tool: Using Fingers as a Numerical Representation Specifically Benefits Lower Performers in Kindergarten Mathematics
Language: English
Authors: Gabriela Kovarsky Rotta (ORCID 0009-0009-0024-5589), Eliza L. Congdon (ORCID 0000-0002-4587-3441)
Source: Developmental Psychology. 2026 62(4):802-816.
Availability: American Psychological Association. Journals Department, 750 First Street NE, Washington, DC 20002. Tel: 800-374-2721; Tel: 202-336-5510; Fax: 202-336-5502; e-mail: order@apa.org; Web site: http://www.apa.org
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Elementary Education
Kindergarten
Primary Education
Descriptors: Kindergarten, Intervention, Mathematics Instruction, Educational Games, Computation, Human Body, Manipulative Materials, Program Effectiveness, Numeracy, Intelligence Tests, Achievement Tests
Geographic Terms: Massachusetts
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Raven Progressive Matrices, Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement
DOI: 10.1037/dev0002032
ISSN: 0012-1649
1939-0599
Abstract: Early math difficulties can stem from children's failure to link nonsymbolic and symbolic representations of number. Well-designed math games have been consistently shown to help children make this link (Balladares et al., 2024), but research using fingers as numerical representations is more mixed (e.g., Moeller et al., 2011). In the present study, 95 kindergarteners (5-7 years old; estimated demographics based on publicly available data: 81% White; 7% Hispanic/Latinx; 2% Black; 1% Asian/Pacific Islander; 9% multiracial) participated in a 2-week intervention that targeted quantitative skills through one of three approaches to math games: finger-based games, manipulative-based games, or a combination of fingers and manipulatives. There was also a nonmath control group. Across all math-based conditions, children improved significantly from pretest to posttest in measures of early numeracy. This pattern of improvement was moderated by children's initial performance; children performing at or above grade level at pretest derived the most benefit from the manipulative-based games and combined conditions, while their peers who began the study below grade-level performance saw the largest improvements in the finger-based condition. The findings add nuance to a growing literature that seeks to understand the benefits of finger-based activities or numerical games on quantitative skills in 5- to 7-year olds. We underscore the practical and theoretical importance of considering student's baseline understanding of number and argue that fingers are an especially appropriate tool for children who are at the beginning of their numeracy journey, perhaps because they embody the connection between symbolic and nonsymbolic number in a single, pared-down representation.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1503363
Database: ERIC
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  Data: A Handy Tool: Using Fingers as a Numerical Representation Specifically Benefits Lower Performers in Kindergarten Mathematics
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gabriela+Kovarsky+Rotta%22">Gabriela Kovarsky Rotta</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0009-0024-5589">0009-0009-0024-5589</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Eliza+L%2E+Congdon%22">Eliza L. Congdon</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4587-3441">0000-0002-4587-3441</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Developmental+Psychology%22"><i>Developmental Psychology</i></searchLink>. 2026 62(4):802-816.
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  Data: American Psychological Association. Journals Department, 750 First Street NE, Washington, DC 20002. Tel: 800-374-2721; Tel: 202-336-5510; Fax: 202-336-5502; e-mail: order@apa.org; Web site: http://www.apa.org
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  Data: 15
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  Data: 2026
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mathematics+Instruction%22">Mathematics Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Games%22">Educational Games</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computation%22">Computation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Human+Body%22">Human Body</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Manipulative+Materials%22">Manipulative Materials</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Effectiveness%22">Program Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Numeracy%22">Numeracy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intelligence+Tests%22">Intelligence Tests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Achievement+Tests%22">Achievement Tests</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Massachusetts%22">Massachusetts</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Raven+Progressive+Matrices%22">Raven Progressive Matrices</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Woodcock+Johnson+Tests+of+Achievement%22">Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1037/dev0002032
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  Data: 0012-1649<br />1939-0599
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  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Early math difficulties can stem from children's failure to link nonsymbolic and symbolic representations of number. Well-designed math games have been consistently shown to help children make this link (Balladares et al., 2024), but research using fingers as numerical representations is more mixed (e.g., Moeller et al., 2011). In the present study, 95 kindergarteners (5-7 years old; estimated demographics based on publicly available data: 81% White; 7% Hispanic/Latinx; 2% Black; 1% Asian/Pacific Islander; 9% multiracial) participated in a 2-week intervention that targeted quantitative skills through one of three approaches to math games: finger-based games, manipulative-based games, or a combination of fingers and manipulatives. There was also a nonmath control group. Across all math-based conditions, children improved significantly from pretest to posttest in measures of early numeracy. This pattern of improvement was moderated by children's initial performance; children performing at or above grade level at pretest derived the most benefit from the manipulative-based games and combined conditions, while their peers who began the study below grade-level performance saw the largest improvements in the finger-based condition. The findings add nuance to a growing literature that seeks to understand the benefits of finger-based activities or numerical games on quantitative skills in 5- to 7-year olds. We underscore the practical and theoretical importance of considering student's baseline understanding of number and argue that fingers are an especially appropriate tool for children who are at the beginning of their numeracy journey, perhaps because they embody the connection between symbolic and nonsymbolic number in a single, pared-down representation.
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  Data: 2026
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        Value: 10.1037/dev0002032
    Languages:
      – Text: English
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      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
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    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Kindergarten
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intervention
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      – SubjectFull: Mathematics Instruction
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      – SubjectFull: Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement
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      – TitleFull: A Handy Tool: Using Fingers as a Numerical Representation Specifically Benefits Lower Performers in Kindergarten Mathematics
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