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Examining the Differential Relationships between School Climate and Students' Disciplinary Outcomes: Evidence from New York City

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Title: Examining the Differential Relationships between School Climate and Students' Disciplinary Outcomes: Evidence from New York City
Language: English
Authors: Richard O. Welsh (ORCID 0000-0001-6079-4111), Blaise Joseph, Luis A. Rodriguez (ORCID 0000-0002-4877-2056)
Source: Educational Policy. 2026 40(4):447-492.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 46
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Junior High Schools
Middle Schools
Secondary Education
High Schools
Descriptors: Educational Environment, Discipline, Suspension, Disproportionate Representation, African American Students, Hispanic American Students, Males, Low Income Students, Special Education, Institutional Characteristics, Student Characteristics, Limited English Speaking, Urban Schools, Middle School Students, High School Students
Geographic Terms: New York (New York)
DOI: 10.1177/08959048251340878
ISSN: 0895-9048
1552-3896
Abstract: Improving school climate has emerged as a strategy to reduce discipline disparities. This study uses the case of New York City to examine the differential relationships between school climate and students' likelihood of receiving office discipline referrals (ODRs) or suspensions. The results illustrate that the association between school climate and school discipline varies significantly by student characteristics. Black, Latinx, male, low-income, special education status and students in temporary housing have a smaller associated decrease in likelihood of receiving ODRs and suspensions in more positive school climates relative to other students, although this depends on whether disparities metrics are absolute or relative. School racial composition, school achievement, and the diversity of teachers and school leaders moderate the association between school climate and disciplinary outcomes for Black and Latinx students. Policymakers should consider concurrent investments in school climate and the diversity of school personnel that influences who benefits most from school climate.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1503768
Database: ERIC
FullText Text:
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  Data: Examining the Differential Relationships between School Climate and Students' Disciplinary Outcomes: Evidence from New York City
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Richard+O%2E+Welsh%22">Richard O. Welsh</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6079-4111">0000-0001-6079-4111</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Blaise+Joseph%22">Blaise Joseph</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Luis+A%2E+Rodriguez%22">Luis A. Rodriguez</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4877-2056">0000-0002-4877-2056</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Educational+Policy%22"><i>Educational Policy</i></searchLink>. 2026 40(4):447-492.
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  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Data: Y
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  Data: 46
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  Data: 2026
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Junior+High+Schools%22">Junior High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Middle+Schools%22">Middle Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Environment%22">Educational Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Discipline%22">Discipline</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Suspension%22">Suspension</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Disproportionate+Representation%22">Disproportionate Representation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22African+American+Students%22">African American Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Hispanic+American+Students%22">Hispanic American Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Males%22">Males</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Low+Income+Students%22">Low Income Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Special+Education%22">Special Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Institutional+Characteristics%22">Institutional Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Characteristics%22">Student Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Limited+English+Speaking%22">Limited English Speaking</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Urban+Schools%22">Urban Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Middle+School+Students%22">Middle School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Students%22">High School Students</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22New+York+%28New+York%29%22">New York (New York)</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/08959048251340878
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  Data: 0895-9048<br />1552-3896
– Name: Abstract
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  Data: Improving school climate has emerged as a strategy to reduce discipline disparities. This study uses the case of New York City to examine the differential relationships between school climate and students' likelihood of receiving office discipline referrals (ODRs) or suspensions. The results illustrate that the association between school climate and school discipline varies significantly by student characteristics. Black, Latinx, male, low-income, special education status and students in temporary housing have a smaller associated decrease in likelihood of receiving ODRs and suspensions in more positive school climates relative to other students, although this depends on whether disparities metrics are absolute or relative. School racial composition, school achievement, and the diversity of teachers and school leaders moderate the association between school climate and disciplinary outcomes for Black and Latinx students. Policymakers should consider concurrent investments in school climate and the diversity of school personnel that influences who benefits most from school climate.
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  Data: 2026
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1503768
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      – Text: English
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      – SubjectFull: Educational Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Discipline
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      – SubjectFull: Suspension
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      – SubjectFull: African American Students
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      – SubjectFull: Institutional Characteristics
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      – SubjectFull: Student Characteristics
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      – SubjectFull: Urban Schools
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      – SubjectFull: New York (New York)
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      – TitleFull: Examining the Differential Relationships between School Climate and Students' Disciplinary Outcomes: Evidence from New York City
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