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The Effect of INSIGHTS on Developmental Trajectories of Children's Self-Regulation

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Title: The Effect of INSIGHTS on Developmental Trajectories of Children's Self-Regulation
Language: English
Authors: Kathleen Moritz Rudasill (ORCID 0000-0002-9415-8575), Ray E. Reichenberg (ORCID 0000-0003-2091-1779), Jungwon Eum, Jentry Stoneman Barrett, Emily Wilson, Yuenjung Joo, Martinique A. Sealy
Source: Early Childhood Education Journal. 2026 54(1):13-26.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2026
Sponsoring Agency: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
Contract Number: R305A180290
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Elementary Education
Kindergarten
Primary Education
Grade 1
Descriptors: Child Development, Self Control, Student Adjustment, Intervention, Kindergarten, Grade 1, Social Development, Emotional Development, Rural Areas, Inhibition, Attention Control
DOI: 10.1007/s10643-024-01784-9
ISSN: 1082-3301
1573-1707
Abstract: The development of self-regulation is critical for children's positive interactions with others and successful adjustment to school. Using their self-regulation skills, children can adapt their temperamental, emotional, and behavioral reactions to environmental stimuli. Greater self-regulation is advantageous in the classroom, as more regulated children have an easier time with basic behavioral expectations, and are more likely to persist with difficult tasks, work efficiently, and pay attention to instructions. INSIGHTS into Children's Temperament (INSIGHTS) is a temperament-based intervention that improves kindergarten and first-grade children's social-emotional development and academic learning. In the current study, we examined the effects of INSIGHTS on rural Midwestern children's self-regulation development (i.e., attention, inhibitory control), compared to control classrooms. In addition, we explored the effects of children's baseline self-regulation and the effects of the intervention on children's developmental trajectories. Students (N = 147) from 61 classrooms were randomly assigned to INSIGHTS or control conditions by school. Children's self-regulation skills whereas examined at four different times. Multiple regression models were fit, and results suggest that INSIGHTS participants exhibited greater self-regulation at Time 4 as compared to the control group. Additionally, latent growth curve models were used to model linear growth. Results suggest that INSIGHTS participants experienced increased growth rates for attention, inhibitory control, and sustained attention compared to the control group. Our study provides evidence for the positive effects of a social-emotional classroom intervention on the developmental trajectory of children's self-regulation.
Abstractor: As Provided
IES Funded: Yes
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1503782
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0191072471;5mx01jan.26;2026Jan27.05:19;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0191072471-1">The Effect of INSIGHTS on Developmental Trajectories of Children's Self- Regulation </title> <p>The development of self-regulation is critical for children's positive interactions with others and successful adjustment to school. Using their self-regulation skills, children can adapt their temperamental, emotional, and behavioral reactions to environmental stimuli. Greater self-regulation is advantageous in the classroom, as more regulated children have an easier time with basic behavioral expectations, and are more likely to persist with difficult tasks, work efficiently, and pay attention to instructions. INSIGHTS into Children's Temperament (INSIGHTS) is a temperament-based intervention that improves kindergarten and first-grade children's social-emotional development and academic learning. In the current study, we examined the effects of INSIGHTS on rural Midwestern children's self-regulation development (i.e., attention, inhibitory control), compared to control classrooms. In addition, we explored the effects of children's baseline self-regulation and the effects of the intervention on children's developmental trajectories. Students (N = 147) from 61 classrooms were randomly assigned to INSIGHTS or control conditions by school. Children's self-regulation skills whereas examined at four different times. Multiple regression models were fit, and results suggest that INSIGHTS participants exhibited greater self-regulation at Time 4 as compared to the control group. Additionally, latent growth curve models were used to model linear growth. Results suggest that INSIGHTS participants experienced increased growth rates for attention, inhibitory control, and sustained attention compared to the control group. Our study provides evidence for the positive effects of a social-emotional classroom intervention on the developmental trajectory of children's self-regulation.</p> <p>Keywords: Self-regulation; INSIGHTS intervention; Rural; Psychology and Cognitive Sciences Psychology Education Specialist Studies In Education</p> <p>Self-regulation is critical for children's success in school (White et al., [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref1">79</reflink>]) and positive lifelong outcomes such as health, income, and adjustment (e.g., Moffitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref2">38</reflink>]). Self-regulation is advantageous in educational settings because more regulated students have an easier time with classroom behavioral expectations (Rimm-Kaufman et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref3">49</reflink>]), have better relationships with peers and teachers (e.g., Rudasill et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref4">59</reflink>]; Rudasill, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref5">58</reflink>]), and are more likely to persist with difficult tasks, work efficiently, and pay attention to instructions (Bierman et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref6">1</reflink>]; McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref7">28</reflink>]). The development of self-regulation skills is one of the most significant outcomes of the early childhood epoch (Blair et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref8">4</reflink>]; Shearer et al., [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref9">67</reflink>]), and the early learning environment is a key context in which this development occurs (Rudasill et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref10">63</reflink>]; Shapiro, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref11">66</reflink>]; Williford et al., [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref12">80</reflink>]). Self-regulation is rooted in temperament, which is defined as an individual's way of responding to people, events, and other stimuli in their environment (Rothbart et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref13">56</reflink>]). Temperament is relatively stable across the lifespan, reflecting a combination of genetic and environmental influences on behavior (Caspi & Silva, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref14">7</reflink>]; Rothbart & Posner, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref15">55</reflink>]; Shiner et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref16">69</reflink>]). Temperamental regulation refers to the individual's ability to inhibit inappropriate responses and attend to important stimuli, thus modulating their emotional and behavioral reactions to stimuli; as such, self-regulation has a vital role in children's academic adjustment (Rothbart & Posner, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref17">55</reflink>]; Sealy et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref18">65</reflink>]) and can be protective for children at risk (Moffitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref19">38</reflink>]).</p> <p>INSIGHTS into Children's Temperament (INSIGHTS; McClowry, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref20">32</reflink>]) is a temperament-based intervention for teachers and children that has been shown to improve attention and behavior among students in under-resourced schools in the urban Northeastern United States (O'Connor et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref21">42</reflink>]), and is particularly helpful for children with high-maintenance temperaments (i.e., low attention, low task persistence, high activity; McCormick et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref22">34</reflink>]). In the current study, we tested the effectiveness of INSIGHTS in a rural, Midwestern United States setting because rural areas present a unique combination of risk factors for students' success related to social isolation and lower levels of funding for schools and services (e.g., Tieken & Montgomery, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref23">72</reflink>]; Wilson et al., [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref24">81</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-2">Self-Regulation</hd> <p>Self-regulation refers to the ability to moderate thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in response to events and environment (Calkins, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref25">6</reflink>]), and includes multiple processes, such as cognitive and behavioral inhibitory control, and focusing and sustaining attention (Blair, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref26">2</reflink>]; Raver et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref27">48</reflink>]). Self-regulation is an integral part of the temperament system that emerges at the end of the first year of life, coheres in early childhood, and remains a salient personality variable throughout the lifespan (Kochanska et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref28">23</reflink>]). Temperamentally based self-regulation, also called effortful control, develops most significantly from approximately age three to eight years (Rothbart & Bates, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref29">54</reflink>]), and works synergistically with temperamental reactivity, which refers to the individual's innate tendency to respond to environmental stimuli and is conceptualized in terms of the duration and intensity of the response (Sealy et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref30">65</reflink>]). During this time, an individual's capacity to inhibit inappropriate behavior, attend, and manage emotions expands rapidly (Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref31">53</reflink>]; Rothbart et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref32">57</reflink>]). Children high in self-regulation can modulate their initial temperamental reactivity to the environment by suppressing a dominant response to perform a subdominant response (Rothbart et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref33">57</reflink>]). For example, if a very active child (i.e., indicative of high temperamental reactivity) also has a high level of self-regulation, that child is able to sit still despite feeling the urge to move. Similarly, if a child with a high level of withdrawal/shyness (another example of high reactivity) has a high level of self-regulation, that child is better able to ask for help or speak up despite feeling anxious about interacting with adults (Sealy et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref34">65</reflink>]). In this study, we measured the two components of temperamental self-regulation that are most often included in educational research: attention and inhibitory control (e.g., Valiente et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref35">75</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-3">Self-Regulation in the Classroom</hd> <p>Temperamentally based self-regulation is critical for understanding children's success in school and their goodness of fit within educational settings. Although informed by reactivity, by the early elementary grades, children's responses in the classroom environment are largely driven by regulation skills. The school environment requires children to respond to complex demands, such as sitting still, paying attention to and remembering the teacher's directions, following classroom rules, and regulating impulses (Blair & Razza, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref36">3</reflink>]; Hughes & Ensor, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref37">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>Children's adjustment to the school environment depends on multiple factors, including socioeconomic status, prior school/preschool experience, parenting, and temperament (e.g., Mashburn et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref38">27</reflink>]). In terms of temperament, children's reactivity (e.g., negative emotionality, shyness, motor activity) and their ability to regulate that reactivity work together to impact their success at the start of school (White et al., [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref39">79</reflink>]). Children with temperament profiles indicative of higher reactivity (e.g., more active, higher anger, shyer) need higher levels of self-regulation to adjust to the demands of the school environment (Sealy et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref40">65</reflink>]; White et al., [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref41">79</reflink>]). Indeed, research has shown robust associations between children's self-regulation and academic outcomes (e.g., Bierman et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref42">1</reflink>]; McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref43">28</reflink>]). For example, studies have shown that children assessed as having higher self-regulation (or effortful control) also have better relationships with teachers and peers, higher performance on reading and math assessments, and more school enjoyment (Gaias et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref44">16</reflink>]; Rudasill et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref45">59</reflink>]). In addition, self-regulation skills help children understand others' perspectives or feelings, predict the result of others' behaviors, and solve social problems appropriately (Hubert et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref46">20</reflink>]; Meuwissen & Englund, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref47">36</reflink>]; Nucifora & Walker, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref48">41</reflink>]). Better self-regulation appears to help children avail themselves of classroom resources more easily than their peers who are less well-regulated. Rudasill and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref49">61</reflink>]) found that more regulated children were more academically successful when they were in higher quality classroom environments, while children with low self-regulation seemed to only benefit from low quality classroom environments.</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-4">Temperament and Goodness-of-Fit in the Classroom</hd> <p>Central to temperament theory is the idea of goodness-of-fit, or congruence between a child's individual temperament and the demands, expectations, and opportunities in the child's environment (Chess & Thomas, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref50">8</reflink>]). According to McClowry and her colleagues, there are four primary temperament dimensions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref51">1</reflink>) negative reactivity, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref52">2</reflink>) task persistence, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref53">3</reflink>) approach/withdrawal, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref54">4</reflink>) motor activity (Lyons-Thomas & McClowry, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref55">25</reflink>]; McClowry et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref56">33</reflink>]). Negative reactivity is a child's tendency to feel and express negative emotions. Students with high negative reactivity get easily upset and react strongly to changes and stimuli (Rothbart & Bates, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref57">54</reflink>]). They can be at risk in the classroom environment because they tend to have lower quality relationships with teachers and peers and poorer academic outcomes (Gaias et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref58">16</reflink>]; Rudasill et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref59">59</reflink>]). Task persistence is a child's tendency to stick with a task or activity and stay self-directed when difficulties arise or when distracted. Students low in task persistence tend to have difficulties with completing assignments and focusing attention (Martin et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref60">26</reflink>]). Approach/withdrawal (a continuum of shyness) is a child's tendency to feel uncomfortable with new stimuli (e.g., new people, places, and situations). Students who are high in withdrawal can be at risk socially and academically because their lack of interactions with teachers and peers and their academic difficulties might be ignored or unnoticed in the classroom environment (Coplan & Rudasill, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref61">9</reflink>]; White et al., [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref62">79</reflink>]). Finally, motor activity is a child's tendency to engage in major body movement. Students with high motor activity can disrupt whole class settings and learning environments if not adequately accommodated (McClowry, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref63">31</reflink>]; Rudasill et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref64">60</reflink>]). Early elementary teachers who understand temperament and are knowledgeable about temperament dimensions can respond to their students' individual differences more effectively, thus promoting goodness-of-fit by aligning teaching practices and classroom interactions with children's temperament (McClowry, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref65">32</reflink>]). From the goodness-of-fit perspective, a child who has difficulty sitting still is not being purposefully disrespectful to the teacher; rather, the child has a temperament indicative of high motor activity and require more breaks to control the natural desire to move. The INSIGHTS intervention (McClowry et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref66">34</reflink>]) helps teachers understand how to best create goodness-of-fit (Sealy et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref67">65</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-5">INSIGHTS into Children's Temperament</hd> <p>INSIGHTS is an evidence-based social-emotional learning (SEL) intervention for kindergarten and first grade that provides children and teachers with temperament-based strategies for understanding and responding to student's behavior and emotions in the classroom. INSIGHTS focuses on optimizing goodness-of-fit between children and classrooms by educating teachers and children about individual differences in temperament, promoting children's emotional and behavioral regulation through awareness of their own and other's temperament, encouraging positive interactions between children, and providing teachers with temperament-based strategies for helping children manage their behavior and emotions (McClowry, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref68">32</reflink>]). With INSIGHTS, teachers learn to work <emph>with</emph> children's temperament, not change it. Likewise, children learn to understand how their temperament impacts their responses to the environment, and that their responses may be different than those of other children. This creates an awareness that guides interactions between children and teachers.</p> <p>INSIGHTS includes three instructional parts. Part one focuses on understanding child temperament and the 3R's: <emph>Recognize</emph>, <emph>Reframe</emph>, and <emph>Respond</emph>. Teachers learn how to recognize children's unique temperament, how to reframe their perceptions of children's various temperaments, and how to respond effectively to children's different temperamental behavior. Part two focuses on temperament-based strategies, such that teachers learn how to apply strategies that match children's unique temperament and increase children's positive behavior. Part three highlights children's developmental needs. Teachers learn how to support children during temperamentally difficult situations using stretching and scaffolding strategies. The intervention is implemented in classrooms. Facilitators and teachers teach children empathy that helps them understand others' different reactions to challenging situations based on their unique temperament and problem-solving strategies that assist them in regulating their emotions and behaviors in difficult situations.</p> <p>Children learn to solve dilemmas in the classroom by applying a stop-and-think strategy where they identify a dilemma, come up with a solution that is informed by their own and others' temperament, and try it out. Intervention materials include puppets with different temperaments as modeling/teaching tools, video clips with real-world scenarios (i.e., vignettes that include daily dilemmas and facilitate children's ability to stop and think about various resolutions), a detailed manual, worksheets, assignments, and handouts (McClowry et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref69">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>The efficacy of INSIGHTS has been tested in clinical trials. In an initial trial with a sample of kindergarten and first grade children, parents, and teachers from under-resourced schools in a Northeastern city, schools were randomized into the INSIGHTS program (11 schools) or an attention-control condition (supplemental reading program, 11 schools). INSIGHTS increased sustained attention and decreased problem behaviors for children in intervention classrooms compared to children in attention-control condition classrooms (O'Connor et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref70">42</reflink>]). INSIGHTS also improved children's behavioral engagement, reduced disruptive and off-task behaviors (McCormick et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref71">34</reflink>]), and increased children's performance on standardized tests through the third and fourth grade (McCormick et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref72">35</reflink>]). In the current clinical trial conducted in the rural Midwestern United States, we found that INSIGHTS promoted positive teacher-child relationships in kindergarten (Rudasill et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref73">62</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-6">Other Interventions that Enhance Self-Regulation</hd> <p>There are very few interventions for early learning environments that specifically target the development of self-regulation skills. One intervention that does is <emph>Red Light</emph>, <emph>Purple Light!</emph> (McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref74">30</reflink>]). Children play games similar to 'Simon Says' and 'Red Light, Green Light' to foster the ability to attend to appropriate stimuli, inhibit inappropriate responses, and retain critical information during a task. Red Light, Purple Light! is designed to build several key self-regulation skills: inhibitory control, attention focusing, and working memory. Results from a randomized control trial (Tominey & McClelland, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref75">73</reflink>]) with pre-kindergarten children show that Red Light, Purple Light improves performance on the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task (HTKS; Ponitz et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref76">46</reflink>]). HTKS is an assessment of attention, inhibitory control, and working memory (see additional information in "Measures").</p> <p>In addition, several social-emotional interventions for early learning have been shown to improve children's self-regulation as part of a wider set of skills (e.g., social and emotional competence, early learning outcomes, classroom behavior; Blewitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref77">5</reflink>]). These include Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS; Domitrovich et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref78">14</reflink>]), I Can Problem Solve (ICPS; Shure, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref79">70</reflink>]), the Incredible Years (Webster Stratton & Herman, [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref80">77</reflink>]), and Kids in Transition (Pears et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref81">45</reflink>]). However, none of those are specifically focused on developing children's self-regulatory skills. INSIGHTS is unique as a temperament-based SEL intervention that incorporates intentional self-regulation skill development.</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-7">The Current Study</hd> <p>The purpose of this study is to examine the effectiveness of INSIGHTS (McClowry et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref82">34</reflink>]) on children's development of self-regulation (i.e., attention, inhibitory control) during the kindergarten and first-grade years in a rural, midwestern setting in the United States. We examined whether students in rural Midwestern elementary schools who participated in INSIGHTS exhibited increases in inhibitory control and attention in the classroom relative to their peers in control classrooms (business as usual) with no SEL programming. In addition, we explored the effects of children's baseline self-regulation and the effects of the intervention on children's self-regulation trajectories. Testing the effectiveness of INSIGHTS in a rural setting is important for understanding for whom this intervention may be most helpful. The rural Midwest differs from the urban Northeast both demographically and culturally. In terms of demographics, children and their families served by public schools in the rural Midwest tend to be economically diverse, and racially and ethnically homogeneous (mostly white, non-Hispanic) whereas the children and families served by public schools in the urban Northeastern setting of the previous clinical trial were primarily African American/Black (78%) and Hispanic (43%) (O'Connor et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref83">42</reflink>]). In the present study, 20% of children qualified for free or reduced-price lunch, compared to 90% of children in schools included in the previous clinical trial.</p> <p>In terms of cultural differences between the rural Midwest and the urban Northeast, although schools in both areas serve families and children who face considerable challenges, such as lower levels of funding and racial achievement disparities (Tieken & Montgomery, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref84">72</reflink>]; Wilson et al., [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref85">81</reflink>]), in rural areas, these challenges are coupled with increased social isolation (Monteith et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref86">39</reflink>]), lack of access to mental health resources (Gamm & Hutchison, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref87">17</reflink>]; Johnson & Strange, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref88">22</reflink>]; Summers-Gabr, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref89">71</reflink>]; Turrini et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref90">74</reflink>]) and fear of stigma associated with mental health diagnosis or treatment (Dempster et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref91">11</reflink>]; Owens et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref92">44</reflink>]). According to the U.S. DHHS (2011), 60% of mental health care shortages are in rural areas. Yet, while rural communities are less adequately prepared to deal with the mental health needs of their citizens, children living in rural areas are more likely to have mental health and behavioral problems than their peers in urban areas (Lenardson et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref93">24</reflink>]; Sheridan et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref94">68</reflink>]). In addition, schools in rural areas are less likely than those in urban settings to offer SEL programming (Mitchell, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref95">37</reflink>]; Rogers et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref96">51</reflink>]). Thus, SEL interventions that are simultaneously universal (i.e., tier 1), and enable tailoring to students' individual temperaments, are a promising pathway to providing much-needed skills for young children in rural school settings before serious problems emerge.</p> <p>SEL interventions are often difficult to implement in rural schools because they require resources for teacher training and support. In an investigation of SEL programming with teachers and other personnel in rural schools, Rogers et al. ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref97">51</reflink>]) found several barriers to implementation: (a) lack of SEL understanding and knowledge; (b) lack of structural supports; (c) learned helplessness; (d) insufficient professional development. In the current study, INSIGHTS was delivered to teachers and students without cost to schools, and teachers were provided with remuneration for participating in the training and coaching sessions.</p> <p>We hypothesized that children in the INSIGHTS classrooms would exhibit increases in self-regulation across four measurement periods compared to their control group counterparts. In addition, we predicted that developmental trajectories of self-regulation across four measurement periods (slope) would be greater for children in the INSIGHTS treatment group relative to their control group peers, and that the effects of INSIGHTS on the development of self-regulation would differ based on children's initial level of self-regulation (intercept).</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-8">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191072471-9">Participants and Setting</hd> <p>Participants for this study included 147 students from 61 (30 kindergarten; 31 first grade) rural Midwestern elementary classrooms (18 schools, 8 from Cohort 1, 10 from Cohort 3; description of cohorts follows) who were part of a broader randomized control-trial of the efficacy of INSIGHTS. The participants were recruited into the study during their kindergarten year and randomly assigned to INSIGHTS or control conditions by school. The study was conducted using a cohort model; the first cohort was launched in the spring semester of 2019 (kindergarten implementation), and followed through first grade (spring 2020); the second cohort was launched in the spring of 2020 (kindergarten), and the intention was to follow this cohort through first grade (spring 2021) but this cohort was completely disrupted by the COVID-19 shutdown and follow-up was not possible; the third cohort was launched in the spring of 2022 and followed through first grade (spring 2023). Because of the disruption to cohort two, we included cohorts one and three only. <emph>T</emph>-tests revealed that there were no statistically significant differences in baseline scores between participants in cohorts one and three. There were 8 control schools (14 kindergarten classrooms; 16 first grade classrooms; 57 students) and 10 treatment schools (16 kindergarten classrooms; 15 first grade classrooms, 90 students). INSIGHTS was delivered to treatment teachers and students for 10 weeks in the spring of kindergarten and again for 10 weeks during the fall of first grade. Control teachers and students followed their usual education program. The students ranged in age from 5 to 6 years at baseline (<emph>M</emph> = 5.51 years, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.50). More than half (51.1%) of the students were female. Approximately 21% of students qualified for free or reduced-price lunch programs. The racial/ethnic breakdown of the sample was representative of the population of the area of the rural Midwestern US in which the study was conducted. A large majority of students were white (94.4%), and the remaining students were biracial (African American/white 2.8%, Hispanic/white 1.4%, Pacific Islander/white 1.4%). Many students were non-Hispanic (95.7%). All participating students spoke English as their primary language (100%). All participating teachers were female (100%) and white (100%). The teachers' age ranged from 23 to 63 years (<emph>M</emph> = 40.14 years, <emph>SD</emph> = 11.10), and most teachers were non-Hispanic (97%). 100% of teachers had bachelor's degrees, and 46% of teachers had master's degrees. Teachers had an average of 14 years of teaching experience.</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-10">Recruitment and Data Collection</hd> <p>This study was approved by the IRB of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. We recruited participants by contacting schools, school districts, and educational service units (ESUs; units serving multiple school districts across a geographic area in the state). We utilized a federal website for the recruitment of schools categorized as "rural". Once a school's principal agreed to participate, we invited the principal and kindergarten and first grade teachers to a meeting, shared information about INSIGHTS and our study, and received their consent to participate in the study. Once teachers provided consent to participate, we asked them to assist with recruiting children by sending study information home to students' families. We also sent a digital version of the recruitment information to the families were provided with consent forms for their and their children's participation.</p> <p>Children's temperamental regulation skills were examined at four different times (i.e., before and after each implementation of INSIGHTS in kindergarten and first grade). Time 1 data were collected at baseline in the winter of the kindergarten year prior to the intervention. After baseline data were collected, schools were randomized into treatment or control conditions. The kindergarten INSIGHTS intervention was delivered to the treatment kindergarten teachers and their students over 10 weeks. Time 2 data were collected after the intervention in the spring of the kindergarten year. Time 3 data were collected in the fall of the first-grade year, prior to the second implementation of the intervention. After Time 3 data were collected, the first grade INSIGHTS intervention was delivered to the treatment first grade teachers and their students over 10 weeks. Time 4 data were collected following the first-grade intervention in the winter of the school year.</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-11">Measures</hd> <p>To measure self-regulation, we used the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS; McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref98">29</reflink>]) and the Leiter-3 (Roid & Koch, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref99">52</reflink>]) assessments. The HTKS assesses children's attention and inhibitory control, and the Leiter-3 assesses children's sustained attention. Both assessments were administered to each study child individually in the same session (HTKS is followed by Leiter-3) by trained data collectors.</p> <p>The HTKS is a well-validated measure of self-regulation that specifically assesses children's ability to attend and inhibit (Ponitz et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref100">46</reflink>]; McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref101">29</reflink>]). The assessor administers the task while seated, and the child stands throughout the entire task. The assessor names a body part (i.e., head, toes, knees, or shoulders) and the child is given instructions to touch an alternative body part (e.g., the child should touch their head when the assessor says to touch their toes). The HTKS contains 30 items scored as follows: 0 = incorrect, the child did not touch the correct part at all; 1 = self-correct, the child self-corrects right away, without prompting; or 2 = correct, the child produces the correct response immediately. Scores range from 0 to 60, and higher scores indicate higher levels of attention and inhibitory control. In this study, the average reliability across time points was 0.69.</p> <p>The Leiter-3 Attention Sustained sub-test is a nonverbal pencil and paper task that provides the child with a target picture (e.g., a butterfly) at the top of a page containing multiple images. The child is instructed to cross out as many images matching the target picture as possible in a limited amount of time. We used two versions of the subtest across the study: the 3–5 years version was used for Kindergarten, and the 6 + years version was used for first grade. The Attention Sustained subtest includes 2–3 parallel forms with increased difficulty. Scores range from 0 to 217, and higher scores indicate higher levels of sustained attention. In the current study, the average reliability across time points was 0.78.</p> <p>The intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were 0.26 for HTKS (design effect of 1.7) and 0.44 for Leiter-3 (design effect of 2.2). Given these values, all analyses utilized Huber-White based methods (White, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref102">78</reflink>]; as implemented in Mplus Version 8) for correcting standard error estimates for clustering effects.</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-12">Intervention Procedures</hd> <p>The developer of INSIGHTS trained two facilitators to conduct INSIGHTS and work with the treatment teachers in classrooms.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref103">1</reflink>] Both facilitators were former classroom teachers, and one of them was also a former principal. Both had ties to the rural communities in which they served as facilitators. For Cohort 1, one facilitator was assigned to 4 schools (7 kindergarten classrooms; 9 first grade classrooms), and for Cohort 3, two facilitators were assigned to 6 schools (7 kindergarten classrooms; 7 first grade classrooms).</p> <p>INSIGHTS was delivered to teachers and their students. Teachers received professional development training on two Saturdays (a total of 12 h) from the INSIGHTS developer. Then teachers and facilitators worked together to deliver INSIGHTS to students in classrooms. Teachers and facilitators also met once a week to review the INSIGHTS content, discuss students' problem behaviors and problem-solving strategies, coordinate classroom implementation, and implement INSIGHTS to students in each teacher's classroom during the 10 weeks (10 30-minute coaching sessions & 10 30-minute classroom sessions; a total of 10 h). During the 10 classroom sessions, teachers were asked to use ideas and strategies they learned from INSIGHTS with their students as they solved scripted or real-life dilemmas (for example, a student conflict over sharing art supplies). Students were given sets of puppets designed for INSIGHTS to use in the classroom when practicing problem solving dilemmas.</p> <p>Implementation fidelity was measured in multiple ways. Classroom sessions during the 10 week implementation period were video recorded, and 20% of them were reviewed by two project staff members against a fidelity checklist. Implementation fidelity between facilitators was high (α = 0.91). Teachers were asked to rate the effectiveness of their facilitators (<emph>M</emph> = 4.45 on a 5-point scale) and whether the facilitators used the intervention materials effectively to teach the classroom lesson (<emph>M</emph> = 4.59 on a 5-point scale) each week during the 10 weeks of the INSIGHTS implementation. Also, facilitators were asked to rate teacher engagement in the intervention implementation (<emph>M</emph> = 8.21 on a 10-point scale).</p> <p>Implementation dosage was measured using 3 criteria: duration <emph>("amount of time over which the intervention is intended to be administered"</emph> p. 2), frequency <emph>("how often contact is intended to be made with participants per unit of time"</emph> p. 2), and amount <emph>("length of each contact between the interventionist and the participant"</emph> p. 2) (Voil et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref104">76</reflink>]). As suggested by Voil and colleagues, intended dosage was included to measure the difficulty of implementation. For teacher professional development, the intended and actual duration, frequency, and amount corresponded. However, for coaching sessions, the intended duration (10 weeks) and actual duration (9.67 weeks) differed slightly. Also, the intended amount (5 h total) and actual amount (4.25 h total) of intervention time differed for classroom sessions.</p> <p>Participating students were in attendance 96% of the time on INSIGHTS days, 82% of teachers attended the professional development sessions in person, and 18% of teachers had to complete the professional development make-up by watching pre-recorded sessions, completing quizzes and discussion questions, and attending a virtual meeting. In addition, 97% of teachers attended coaching sessions.</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-13">Data Analysis</hd> <p>Independent samples <emph>t</emph>-tests were conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference in student self-regulation between students in INSIGHTS and control classrooms at baseline. Multiple regression models mimicking an ANCOVA structure were fit using treatment condition (coded 0 = control, 1 = INSIGHTS) as a predictor of Time 4 outcome (i.e., HTKS and Leiter-3 scores) controlling for initial (i.e., Time 1) score as well as free and reduced lunch status (a proxy for family socioeconomic status), and student age and gender.</p> <p>Latent growth curve models were used to estimate the initial level (intercept) and linear rate of growth (slope) in the dependent variables (i.e., HTKS and Leiter-3 scores) across four time points. Additionally, the effect of the treatment condition (0 = control, 1 = INSIGHTS) as well as age, gender, and free/reduced lunch status, on both the intercept and slope were estimated. A path diagram for the structure of these models is presented in Fig. 1, and fit indices are provided in Table 1. Table 1 summarizes the absolute (standardized root mean squared residual; SRMR), parsimony-adjusted (root mean squared error of approximation; RMSEA), incremental (comparative fit index; CFI), and local (R-squared values for the intercept and slope factors) fit for these models. The scale of the time variable was set at {1, 2, 3.25, 4} to account for the uneven spacing across the four measurement occasions. Both models were fit using robust maximum likelihood estimation using the Mplus software package (Muthén & Muthén, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref105">40</reflink>]). In fitting the ANCOVA/regression models, corrected standard error calculations were used to account for the potential within-student cluster effects. Given the relatively small sample size, the ANCOVA/regression models are presented as a more parsimonious alternative to the growth models.</p> <p>Table 1 Global model fit for two latent growth curve models</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>SRMR</p></th><th align="left"><p>RMSEA (90% CI)</p></th><th align="left"><p>CFI</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup> - Intercept</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup> - Slope</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>HTKS</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.07</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.07 (0.02, 0.12)</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.87</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.02</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.05</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Leiter-3</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.07</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.13 (0.09, 0.17)</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.82</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.17</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.10</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Path diagram for a latent growth curve model with a binary treatment predictor</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-14">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191072471-15">Descriptive Statistics</hd> <p>Preliminary descriptive analyses were conducted for each time point. Results of independent samples <emph>t</emph>-tests suggested that there were no significant differences in student self-regulation between INSIGHTS and control participants at baseline. Means and standard deviations at each time point are presented in Table 2.</p> <p>Table 2 Descriptive statistics for student self-regulation (HTKS – attention, inhibitory control, range 0–60; Leiter – sustained attention, 0–20) over time</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left"><p>INSIGHTS Student</p></th><th align="left"><p>Control Student</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Mean (SD)</p></th><th align="left"><p>Mean (SD)</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 1</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 90</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 57</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> HTKS</p></td><td align="left"><p>36.17 (17.74)</p></td><td align="left"><p>38.47 (14.32)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Leiter</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.78 (3.15)</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.59 (3.09)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 2</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 87</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 54</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> HTKS</p></td><td align="left"><p>44.48 (14.14)</p></td><td align="left"><p>40.61 (16.25)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Leiter</p></td><td align="left"><p>8.81 (2.94)</p></td><td align="left"><p>8.13 (2.56)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 3</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 86</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 54</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> HTKS</p></td><td align="left"><p>49.67 (8.32)</p></td><td align="left"><p>49.89 (10.00)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Leiter</p></td><td align="left"><p>9.53 (2.76)</p></td><td align="left"><p>8.02 (2.27)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 4</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 85</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 54</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> HTKS</p></td><td align="left"><p>51.89 (9.45)</p></td><td align="left"><p>50.26 (8.21)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Leiter</p></td><td align="left"><p>10.65 (2.44)</p></td><td align="left"><p>9.85 (2.58)</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0191072471-16">Multiple Regression Models</hd> <p>As shown in Table 3, results of multiple regression models suggested that INSIGHTS participants exhibited greater self-regulation (HTKS, <emph>p</emph> =.09) and sustained attention (Leiter-3, <emph>p</emph> =.08) at Time 4 as compared with participants in the control group (after controlling for initial level of the target construct as well as gender, FRL status, and age), though these differences did not reach significance at the α = 0.05 level. The effect sizes for these relationships were relatively small (<emph>β</emph> = 0.116 for self-regulation and <emph>β</emph> = 0.119 for sustained attention).</p> <p>Table 3 Effect of INSIGHTS on HTKS (<emph>N</emph> = 133) and Leiter-3 (<emph>N</emph> = 125) scores (unstandardized)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Parameter</p></th><th align="left"><p>Mean (SD)</p></th><th align="left"><p>Est.</p></th><th align="left"><p>z</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic>-value</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>HTKS<sub>Time1</sub></p></td><td align="left"><p>37.2 (<italic>16.40</italic>)</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>HTKS<sub>Time4</sub> (<italic>N</italic> = 133)</p></td><td align="left"><p>51.2 (9.01)</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>HTKS<sub>Time4</sub> ON HTKS<sub>Time1</sub></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.17</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.54</p></td><td align="left"><p>< 0.05</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>HTKS<sub>Time4</sub> ON Treatment</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>2.14</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.68</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.09</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>HTKS<sub>Time4</sub> ON Age</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>-1.16</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.65</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.51</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>HTKS<sub>Time4</sub> ON Gender</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>-1.97</p></td><td align="left"><p>-1.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.28</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>HTKS<sub>Time4</sub> ON FRL Status</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>1.25</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.82</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.41</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Leiter<sub>Time1</sub></p></td><td align="left"><p>7.8 (<italic>3.05</italic>)</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Leiter<sub>Time4</sub> (<italic>N</italic> = 125)</p></td><td align="left"><p>10.3 (2.56)</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Leiter<sub>Time4</sub> ON Leiter<sub>Time1</sub></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.30</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.58</p></td><td align="left"><p>< 0.001</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Leiter<sub>Time4</sub> ON Treatment</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.62</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.78</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.08</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Leiter<sub>Time4</sub> ON Age</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>-0.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.42</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.68</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Leiter<sub>Time4</sub> ON Gender</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>-0.34</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.72</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.47</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Leiter<sub>Time4</sub> ON FRL Status</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>-0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.08</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.94</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note</emph> Standard error estimates were corrected for clustering effect</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-17">Growth Curve Models</hd> <p>Plots of the model-implied growth trajectories for the treatment and control groups are presented in Fig. 2 (HTKS) and Fig. 3 (Leiter-3). For sustained attention, the trajectories are separated by gender (male vs. female) as the effect of gender predicting the intercept (initial outcome level) was statistically significant (see Table 4). The trend lines generated using the parameters from the latent growth curve modeling suggest that INSIGHTS participants experienced increased rates of linear growth for both attention and inhibitory control (HTKS) as well as sustained attention (Leiter-3) as compared with participants in the control group. However, aside from gender as a significant predictor of the intercept, none of the individual parameters used to generate these trajectories was statistically significant at the α = 0.05 level (see Table 4).</p> <p>Table 4 Latent growth curve model parameter estimates (unstandardized; <emph>N</emph> = 141)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Measure</p></th><th align="left"><p>Parameter</p></th><th align="left"><p>Est.</p></th><th align="left"><p>z</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic>-value</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>HTKS</p></td><td align="left"><p>Intercept – Reference Group</p></td><td align="left"><p>23.36</p></td><td align="left"><p>N/A</p></td><td align="left"><p>N/A</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope – Reference Group</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.07</p></td><td align="left"><p>N/A</p></td><td align="left"><p>N/A</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept ON Treatment</p></td><td align="left"><p>-1.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.31</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.76</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept ON Age</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.19</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.93</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.35</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept ON Gender</p></td><td align="left"><p>-1.92</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.58</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.56</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept ON FRL Status</p></td><td align="left"><p>-3.47</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.88</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.38</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope ON Treatment</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.68</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.81</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.42</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope ON Age</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.80</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.90</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.37</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope ON Gender</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.11</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.91</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope ON FRL Status</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.35</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.30</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.19</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept WITH Slope (standardized)</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.98</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Leiter-3</p></td><td align="left"><p>Intercept – Reference Group</p></td><td align="left"><p>12.31</p></td><td align="left"><p>N/A</p></td><td align="left"><p>N/A</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope – Reference Group</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.36</p></td><td align="left"><p>N/A</p></td><td align="left"><p>N/A</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept ON Treatment</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.11</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.20</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.85</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept ON Age</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.65</p></td><td align="left"><p>-1.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.28</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept ON Gender</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>-1.74</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>-3.02</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>< 0.01</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept ON FRL Status</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.45</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.66</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.51</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope ON Treatment</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.16</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.99</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.32</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope ON Age</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.15</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.86</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.39</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope ON Gender</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.24</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.43</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.15</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Slope ON FRL Status</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.11</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.59</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.55</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Intercept WITH Slope (standardized)</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.37</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note</emph> Reference group = control, female, no free reduced lunch qualification, age = 0</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 Model-implied HTKS growth trajectories for treatment and control groups</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 3 Model-implied Leiter-3 growth trajectories by treatment condition and gender</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-18">Discussion</hd> <p>In this study, we examined the effectiveness of INSIGHTS for improving children's self-regulation development across kindergarten and first grade. The previous clinical trial of INSIGHTS that was conducted in an under-resourced, urban environment in the Northeastern United States demonstrated that INSIGHTS was helpful for improving children's attention and behavior (McCormick et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref106">34</reflink>]; O'Connor et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref107">42</reflink>]). We expected to find similar results in this replication study, even though it was conducted in a very different setting - the rural Midwest. Indeed, our findings were consonant with those from the previous clinical trial (McCormick et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref108">34</reflink>]; O'Connor et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref109">42</reflink>]). We found evidence to suggest that being in an INSIGHTS classroom promoted children's self-regulation development (attention and inhibitory control) across kindergarten and first grade in a rural, Midwestern setting. Although not a focus of the study, we also found that girls showed significantly higher sustained attention at Time 1 than boys which is congruent with results from the previous clinical trial (O'Connor et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref110">42</reflink>]).</p> <p>Children's self-regulation is critical for their successful adjustment to formal school. As they adapt to the school environment, key skills such as listening to teacher instruction, following directions, interacting successfully with peers, and engaging with learning tasks are all intricately tied to self-regulation (Bierman et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref111">1</reflink>]; Gaias et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref112">16</reflink>]; Hubert et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref113">20</reflink>]; McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref114">28</reflink>]; Meuwissen & Englund, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref115">36</reflink>]; Nucifora & Walker, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref116">41</reflink>]; Rudasill et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref117">59</reflink>]). Longitudinal research points to the vital role of self-regulation for long-term outcomes as well (Moffitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref118">38</reflink>]; Owens, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref119">43</reflink>]); in a longitudinal study of just over 1,000 participants in New Zealand, followed over 40 years, Moffitt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref120">38</reflink>]) found that self-regulation in childhood was positively linked to health and wealth, and negatively related to involvement in crime, in adulthood. These findings were consistent across intelligence and income.</p> <p>In the current study, we found that students in INSIGHTS classrooms showed increases in their scores on the sustained attention subtest of the Leiter-3 assessment from before the intervention in kindergarten to after the intervention in first grade. In addition, students in INSIGHTS classrooms also showed greater increases in the HTKS, although not at a level of statistical significance at <emph>p</emph> <.05. These findings align with what we know about the role of school experiences, and goodness-of-fit, for shaping children's self-regulation development (Rimm-Kaufman et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref121">49</reflink>]). Teachers who are more sensitive and engage in high quality interactions with students, particularly in terms of emotional support and organization, tend to cultivate self-regulation in their students (Hamre et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref122">18</reflink>]). In addition, children's experiences prior to kindergarten play a role in their self-regulation development. Children who have had formal pre-kindergarten experiences tend to be advantaged in terms of self-regulated behaviors needed in the classroom. Likewise, parenting experiences impact children's ability to adapt successfully to the formal school environment (DeFlorio & Beliakoff, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref123">10</reflink>]; Ramey & Ramey, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref124">47</reflink>]). By teaching teachers (and children) about temperament and the best ways to respond to different temperament styles, INSIGHTS seems to promote goodness-of-fit and cultivate more positive interactions between teachers and children.</p> <p>Beyond creating goodness-of-fit for students with different temperaments, the INSIGHTS intervention specifically targets self-regulation skill development. Children are taught to stop, think, and then act when faced with a dilemma, while also considering the dilemma from their own and others' perspectives using a temperament lens. Indeed, the intentional instruction for children to stop and think before acting has been shown to improve self-regulation skills in young children (e.g., Schmitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref125">64</reflink>]). For example, Tominey and McClelland ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref126">73</reflink>]) developed a targeted self-regulation intervention for preschool (Red Light, Purple Light) where children spend 20–30 min twice per week (for eight weeks) playing games that place increasing demands on their capacity to pay attention to rule changes, inhibit responses, and retain rule information. For example, one game, similar to "red light, green light", asks children to move when they see an orange placard and stop moving when they see a purple placard. There are five different types of games in all. Results from several randomized controlled trials with children in preschool demonstrate that this targeted intervention is effective for increasing self-regulation, particularly for children who are low in self-regulation to begin with (Schmitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref127">64</reflink>]; Tominey & McClelland, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref128">73</reflink>]).</p> <p>As noted earlier, our results show that girls scored significantly higher than boys on sustained attention at the first assessment point in kindergarten. The same phenomenon was noted in the clinical trial in an urban, Northeastern setting (O'Connor et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref129">42</reflink>]) and this finding is congruent with research showing that girls tend to demonstrate better self-regulation than boys in early childhood (Hosseini-Kamkar & Morton, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref130">19</reflink>]). It appears that, especially in the early childhood educational setting, girls are consistently at an advantage over boys. Abundant evidence points to girls having better relationships with teachers (e.g., Ewing & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref131">15</reflink>]), displaying better behavior (Owens, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref132">43</reflink>]), and scoring higher on achievement assessments (DiPrete & Buchmann, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref133">13</reflink>]; Robson et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref134">50</reflink>]), all of which may stem, at least partially, from more developed self-regulation skills.</p> <p>Our findings and attendant effect sizes were not as robust as those found in the previous clinical trial of INSIGHTS that was conducted in an urban, under-resourced school setting in the Northeastern US. There are several possible explanations for this. First, our study was disrupted by the global COVID-19 pandemic that resulted in the shutdown of schools across the US. In the area of the rural Midwest where this study took place, schools reopened in the fall of 2020, but teachers and students were kept behind barriers and wore masks, all of which likely affected the impact of the INSIGHTS intervention for the short and long term. Second, the rural setting resulted in a much smaller sample size than the urban setting. Specifically, rural schools in this study sometimes had only one kindergarten and one first grade classroom, and most classes were relatively small (e.g., 10 students). Compared to the previous clinical trial setting, where each school had 4–5 classrooms per grade and classes had an average of 20–25 students, this difference affected the sample size of the current study and the power to detect effects. Finally, it is possible that the INSIGHTS intervention is not as powerful with the sample in the current study which had a much smaller percentage of students in low-income households, given the positive association between family SES and child self-regulation (Moffitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref135">38</reflink>]).</p> <p>There are five limitations that should be noted to provide direction for future studies. First, a majority of students in our study were white (94%) and non-Hispanic (96%). The sample was from rural schools with low proportions of low-income students. The homogeneity of the sample limited looking at the differential effects of INSIGHTS for students from various socio-economic backgrounds. Future research should include socio-economically, geographically, racially, and ethnically diverse children and their families. Second, there were only 8–10 schools in each condition (10 schools for INSIGHTS treatment, 8 schools for control), and only 7–9 students from each school participated in our study. This limited the power to detect treatment effects. Future studies should include a larger number of schools to generate sufficient power for detecting effects. Third, there were four time points in the present study. Additional research is needed to specifically explore the mechanism of sustainability and the long-term benefits of interventions on child outcomes by collecting data on how teachers apply the information they gained and how they promote children's social-emotional skills in the classroom. Fourth, this study relied on the HTKS and Leiter-3 measures administered by the assessor to measure children's self-regulation. It would be helpful to include a different type of assessment (e.g., classroom observations, home observations, child interviews) in future research. Finally, future examinations of the effectiveness of INSIGHTS could include information on the extent to which teachers are aware of and use trauma-informed practices.</p> <p>Despite these limitations, our study points to the positive effects of a temperamentally based social-emotional classroom intervention on the developmental trajectory of children's self-regulation in a rural, Midwestern US setting, extending evidence of effectiveness beyond the urban Northeastern US. INSIGHTS is a promising universal intervention, and that is largely due to its attention to temperamental differences children bring to the classroom. Child temperament can be used as a foundation for intervention or teacher education programs aimed at promoting child self-regulation skills. At the same time, it is important to note that any SEL intervention, including INSIGHTS, is only possible when there are adequate resources provided for teachers and school personnel to implement them successfully (Rogers et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref136">51</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-19">Funding</hd> <p>This research was funded by the United States Institute of Education Sciences, grant number R305A180290.</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-20">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191072471-21">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.</p> <hd id="AN0191072471-22">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0191072471-23"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref6" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Bierman KL, Nix RL, Greenberg MT, Blair C, Domitrovich CE. 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Sealy</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib79" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib77" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref86"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref94"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref95"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref96"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref98"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref99"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib78" firstref="ref102"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib76" firstref="ref104"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref105"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref119"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref122"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref123"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref124"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref125"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref130"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl69" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref131"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl70" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref133"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl71" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref134"></nolink>
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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: The Effect of INSIGHTS on Developmental Trajectories of Children's Self-Regulation
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kathleen+Moritz+Rudasill%22">Kathleen Moritz Rudasill</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9415-8575">0000-0002-9415-8575</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ray+E%2E+Reichenberg%22">Ray E. Reichenberg</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2091-1779">0000-0003-2091-1779</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jungwon+Eum%22">Jungwon Eum</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jentry+Stoneman+Barrett%22">Jentry Stoneman Barrett</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Emily+Wilson%22">Emily Wilson</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yuenjung+Joo%22">Yuenjung Joo</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Martinique+A%2E+Sealy%22">Martinique A. Sealy</searchLink>
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  Label: Source
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education+Journal%22"><i>Early Childhood Education Journal</i></searchLink>. 2026 54(1):13-26.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 14
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
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  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
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  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: R305A180290
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+1%22">Grade 1</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Development%22">Child Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Control%22">Self Control</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Adjustment%22">Student Adjustment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+1%22">Grade 1</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Development%22">Social Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Emotional+Development%22">Emotional Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Rural+Areas%22">Rural Areas</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inhibition%22">Inhibition</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attention+Control%22">Attention Control</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10643-024-01784-9
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1082-3301<br />1573-1707
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The development of self-regulation is critical for children's positive interactions with others and successful adjustment to school. Using their self-regulation skills, children can adapt their temperamental, emotional, and behavioral reactions to environmental stimuli. Greater self-regulation is advantageous in the classroom, as more regulated children have an easier time with basic behavioral expectations, and are more likely to persist with difficult tasks, work efficiently, and pay attention to instructions. INSIGHTS into Children's Temperament (INSIGHTS) is a temperament-based intervention that improves kindergarten and first-grade children's social-emotional development and academic learning. In the current study, we examined the effects of INSIGHTS on rural Midwestern children's self-regulation development (i.e., attention, inhibitory control), compared to control classrooms. In addition, we explored the effects of children's baseline self-regulation and the effects of the intervention on children's developmental trajectories. Students (N = 147) from 61 classrooms were randomly assigned to INSIGHTS or control conditions by school. Children's self-regulation skills whereas examined at four different times. Multiple regression models were fit, and results suggest that INSIGHTS participants exhibited greater self-regulation at Time 4 as compared to the control group. Additionally, latent growth curve models were used to model linear growth. Results suggest that INSIGHTS participants experienced increased growth rates for attention, inhibitory control, and sustained attention compared to the control group. Our study provides evidence for the positive effects of a social-emotional classroom intervention on the developmental trajectory of children's self-regulation.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: CodeSource
  Label: IES Funded
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Yes
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  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1503782
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1503782
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        Value: 10.1007/s10643-024-01784-9
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 14
        StartPage: 13
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Child Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Control
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Adjustment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intervention
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      – SubjectFull: Kindergarten
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      – SubjectFull: Rural Areas
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      – SubjectFull: Inhibition
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      – SubjectFull: Attention Control
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      – TitleFull: The Effect of INSIGHTS on Developmental Trajectories of Children's Self-Regulation
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