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Informant Discrepancies in the Assessment of Social Skills and Behaviors of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

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Title: Informant Discrepancies in the Assessment of Social Skills and Behaviors of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Language: English
Authors: Samantha E. Stanford, Amanda B. Nickerson, Christopher Lopata, Stephanie S. Fredrick, James P. Donnelly, Jonathan D. Rodgers (ORCID 0000-0001-6769-1289), Marcus L. Thomeer
Source: Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2026 41(2):94-101.
Availability: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 8
Publication Date: 2026
Sponsoring Agency: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
Contract Number: R324A080136
R324A130216
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Parent Attitudes, Teacher Attitudes, Interpersonal Competence, Child Behavior, Young Children, Preadolescents, Autism Spectrum Disorders, Children, Intelligence Tests, Check Lists
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
DOI: 10.1177/10883576251353482
ISSN: 1088-3576
1538-4829
Abstract: This study examined informant discrepancies for parent and teacher ratings of social skills and behavioral flexibility/regulation of 124 U.S. children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), ages 6 to 11 years. Scores on the Adapted Skillstreaming Checklist (ASC) were examined for mean differences, level of agreement, and moderators of difference scores between informant groups. Results indicated no significant differences between parent and teacher ASC mean scores. Parent and teacher scores were low-to-moderately correlated (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.30 and Pearson r = 0.18) and the Bland-Altman plot and regression analysis revealed no systematic differences in agreement across the range of scores. None of the variables moderated the parent-teacher difference scores. Overall, practitioners should not necessarily anticipate parent-teacher differences when using the ASC for group-level comparisons. However, ratings were less consistent (modest correlations) at the individual child level. Less agreement at the individual child level suggests that practitioners should be prepared to follow-up and clarify the reason(s) for the differences.
Abstractor: As Provided
IES Funded: Yes
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1503860
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0193226597;fdd01jun.26;2026Apr27.04:52;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0193226597-1">Informant Discrepancies in the Assessment of Social Skills and Behaviors of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder </title> <p>This study examined informant discrepancies for parent and teacher ratings of social skills and behavioral flexibility/regulation of 124 U.S. children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), ages 6 to 11 years. Scores on the Adapted Skillstreaming Checklist (ASC) were examined for mean differences, level of agreement, and moderators of difference scores between informant groups. Results indicated no significant differences between parent and teacher ASC mean scores. Parent and teacher scores were low-to-moderately correlated (intraclass correlation coefficient =.30 and Pearson r =.18) and the Bland–Altman plot and regression analysis revealed no systematic differences in agreement across the range of scores. None of the variables moderated the parent–teacher difference scores. Overall, practitioners should not necessarily anticipate parent–teacher differences when using the ASC for group-level comparisons. However, ratings were less consistent (modest correlations) at the individual child level. Less agreement at the individual child level suggests that practitioners should be prepared to follow-up and clarify the reason(s) for the differences.</p> <p>Keywords: informant discrepancies; autism spectrum disorder; ASD; Adapted Skillstreaming Checklist</p> <p>Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) without intellectual disability (ID) comprise approximately 62% of those diagnosed and this subgroup has increased substantially over the past three decades ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref1">23</reflink>]). Despite relative cognitive strength, these children's social differences and circumscribed and repetitive behaviors/interests significantly disrupt daily functioning ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref2">4</reflink>]). Increased prevalence of this subgroup strongly indicates a need for measures that accurately and efficiently assess their core challenges/skills and assist with assessment of intervention outcomes and progress ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref3">12</reflink>]); the field lacks such measures especially those that are treatment-sensitive ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref4">5</reflink>]). Developing measures for children with ASD is challenging as IQ, language, and developmental level can affect symptom/skill/behavioral expression and the accuracy of a measure, indicating a need for measures designed for and tested with specific subgroups (e.g., without ID; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref5">22</reflink>]).</p> <p>Rating scales are commonly used in applied settings (e.g., schools, clinics) to assess the characteristics and skills of children with ASD as they are brief, inexpensive, easily administered, and capture data from multiple informants in naturalistic settings ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref6">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref7">14</reflink>]). In contrast to diagnostic instruments that typically measure characteristics dichotomously (i.e., present or absent), rating scales generally utilize continuous scaling that measures important aspects of gradation ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>]) making them potentially useful for assessing intervention outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref9">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>To obtain a holistic understanding of the functioning of children with ASD without ID, it is common to collect ratings from parents and teachers; however, this often results in informant discrepancies ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref10">11</reflink>]). Understanding discrepancies is critical as they can affect access to services (eligibility determinations), intervention planning (identification of targets and/or strategies), and outcome/efficacy decisions ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref11">14</reflink>]). These have important implications for educational and clinical practitioners and the support/care of children with ASD and their families.</p> <p>Studies have documented low-to-moderate associations between different informant types (parents and teachers) in neurotypical (e.g., <emph>r</emph> =.27; [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref12">2</reflink>]) and ASD samples (e.g., <emph>r</emph>s =.27–.38; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref13">29</reflink>]). Parent–teacher ratings of ASD symptom severity have also yielded low-to-moderate correlations (<emph>r</emph> =.27; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref14">26</reflink>]; <emph>r</emph> =.13; [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref15">3</reflink>]). Because most studies have relied on a single measure (metric) of informant discrepancy/agreement, it has been recommended that studies be more comprehensive including tests of agreement (intraclass correlation coefficients; ICCs), simple linear correlations ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref16">28</reflink>]), and mean score differences ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref17">1</reflink>]). Despite recognition of the need for such studies, few have included multiple measures of discrepancy/agreement. In one comprehensive study of ASD symptom severity, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref18">12</reflink>] examined parent–teacher discrepancies (agreement and reliability) for children with ASD (without ID) using multiple metrics. Results revealed significantly higher mean parent ratings, and significant but modest correlations (ICC =.36, <emph>r</emph> =.24). A Bland–Altman plot with regression analysis did not identify any systematic trend in discrepancy across the scale range and no child or parent variables moderated the parent–teacher differences. In contrast, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref19">14</reflink>] found that age and IQ moderated parent–teacher discrepancies in ASD symptom severity ratings for youth with ASD.</p> <p>To date, measures of ASD features have primarily focused on the absence of social skills and presence of circumscribed and repetitive behaviors/interests (diagnostic dimensions; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref20">22</reflink>]). In contrast, the Adapted Skillstreaming Checklist (ASC; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref21">20</reflink>]) assesses the two diagnostic dimensions of children with ASD (without ID) from a prosocial/adaptive skills perspective, specifically the use of social skills and behavioral flexibility/regulation. Consistent with the conceptualization of these dimensions existing on a continuum ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref22">4</reflink>]), the ASC has informants rate the degree to which the skill/behavior is exhibited. Studies have provided strong support for reliability and validity of parent and teacher ASC ratings, as well as treatment sensitivity in social intervention trials (school, outpatient, and summer program) for children with ASD (without ID; see Measure section). In those trials, outcomes were reported for parents and teachers separately. In one school intervention study, the mean of the parent and teacher ASC scores for each child was used in the analyses ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref23">18</reflink>]). Although combining informant ratings (e.g., parent and teacher) is common in child intervention studies, it assumes agreement between informants ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref24">11</reflink>]) and prior studies using the ASC did not address the agreement of parent and teacher ratings for their samples of children with ASD (without ID). Considering its common use in social intervention studies for this population in various settings including schools, studies of informant discrepancies in ASC scores are needed.</p> <p>Given the limited empirical studies and potential consequences of informant discrepancies, studies are needed of measures assessing core ASD dimensions especially those with demonstrated treatment sensitivity. Such studies should be comprehensive, examine patterns of agreement across the range of scores, and test a range of potential moderators ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref25">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref26">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref27">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref28">29</reflink>]). This study comprehensively analyzed informant discrepancies for ASC parent and teacher ratings for a large sample of children with ASD (without ID). Specific aims included an examination of (a) between-group mean difference; (b) parent–teacher reliability estimates (ICC, Pearson <emph>r</emph>, and Bland–Altman plot and regression analysis); and (c) potential moderators of parent–teacher discrepancies.</p> <hd id="AN0193226597-2">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193226597-3">Participants</hd> <p>The sample consisted of ratings by parent–teacher dyads of 124 children with ASD (without ID), ages 6 to 11 years, enrolled in prior school social intervention trials. Children in those trials were recruited via school-disseminated announcements. Each parent–teacher pair rated one child (total of 248 ASC ratings including 124 parent ratings and 124 teacher ratings). All children in the trials had a prior clinical diagnosis of ASD, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref29">31</reflink>]) short-form full scale IQ > 70, and Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref30">8</reflink>]) short-form receptive or expressive language score > 70. All children also had their diagnosis confirmed using the Autism Diagnostic Interview–Revised (ADI-R; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref31">25</reflink>]). WISC-IV, CASL, and ADI-R testing were completed by members of the study team. Complete data were obtained from all parents and teachers (see Table 1 for a description of sample characteristics.)</p> <p>Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Sample for Informant Discrepancies Study.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="center">Characteristic</th><th align="center"><italic>M</italic><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">a</xref></th><th align="center"><italic>SD</italic><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">a</xref></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Age (in years)</td><td>8.71</td><td>1.35</td></tr><tr><td>Parent education (in years)</td><td>15.58</td><td>2.04</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">WISC-IV</td></tr><tr><td> Short-Form Full Scale</td><td>102.65</td><td>14.25</td></tr><tr><td> Short-Form VCI</td><td>101.97</td><td>14.41</td></tr><tr><td> Short-Form PRI</td><td>102.79</td><td>16.50</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">CASL</td></tr><tr><td> Short-Form Expressive Language</td><td>96.71</td><td>15.61</td></tr><tr><td> Short-Form Receptive Language</td><td>101.53</td><td>16.82</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">ADI-R</td></tr><tr><td> Impairment in Social Interaction</td><td>18.64</td><td>5.91</td></tr><tr><td> Impairment in Communication</td><td>15.06</td><td>4.77</td></tr><tr><td> Restricted and Repetitive Behavior</td><td>6.06</td><td>2.23</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">Sex<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">b</xref>: <italic>n</italic>, %</td></tr><tr><td> Male</td><td>112</td><td>90.30%</td></tr><tr><td> Female</td><td>12</td><td>9.70%</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">Race: <italic>n</italic>, %</td></tr><tr><td> White</td><td>120</td><td>96.80%</td></tr><tr><td> African American</td><td>1</td><td>0.80%</td></tr><tr><td> Latino/a</td><td>2</td><td>1.60%</td></tr><tr><td> Other/More Than One Race</td><td>1</td><td>0.80%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>. WISC-IV = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref32">31</reflink>]); CASL = Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref33">8</reflink>]); ADI-R = Autism Diagnostic Interview–Revised ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref34">25</reflink>]); VCI = Verbal Comprehension Index; PRI = Perceptual Reasoning Index.</p> <ulist> <item>2 WISC-IV short-form consisted of the Block Design, Similarities, Vocabulary, and Matrix Reasoning subtests; CASL short-form consisted of the Antonyms, Synonyms, Syntax Construction, and Paragraph Comprehension subtests.</item> <item>3 Unless otherwise indicated. <sups>b</sups> Sex = biological sex (as reported by parents).</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0193226597-4">Measure</hd> <p>The ASC ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref35">20</reflink>]) is a brief 38-item rating scale that assesses the social and behavioral functioning of children with ASD (without ID). The scale can be completed by parents/caregivers and service providers (educators, clinicians, etc.) and it takes 5 to 10 min to complete. As noted, whereas most measures for this population assess the absence of social behaviors/skills and presence of restricted/repetitive interests or behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref36">22</reflink>]), the ASC is unique in that it measures these ASD-defining features from a prosocial/adaptive skills perspective. Of the 38 items, 32 assess social/social-communication skills and six measure behavioral (and interest) regulation and flexibility. Informants rate each item from 1 = <emph>almost never</emph> to 5 = <emph>almost always</emph>. Items are summed to yield a total composite score and higher total scores indicate greater use of the prosocial skills and behavioral/interest flexibility and regulation.</p> <p>Psychometric studies of the ASC for this population have supported its properties with different informants. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref37">17</reflink>] assessed parent ASC ratings for children with ASD (without ID; <emph>N</emph> = 275). Internal consistency was 0.92 and test–retest (6-week) reliability was 0.81. Criterion-related validity was supported in significant positive correlations with ratings of social and adaptive skills and negative correlations with ratings of ASD symptom severity and externalizing behaviors on other established measures. In a study of teacher ASC ratings for children with ASD (without ID; <emph>N</emph> = 133), [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref38">16</reflink>] reported similar findings including internal consistency of 0.93 and test–retest (9-month) reliability of 0.74. Significant positive correlations were reported with ratings of social and adaptive skills and significant negative correlations with ratings of ASD symptom severity and externalizing behaviors on other measures. In both studies, ASC ratings were unrelated to child age, IQ, and language ability. Last, the ASC has demonstrated good treatment sensitivity in multiple school and clinical (outpatient, summer program, etc.) social intervention trials for this population where parent ratings were used alone, or parent and teacher ratings were reported separately or the mean of the parent–teacher ratings for each child were used in the outcome analyses without testing of agreement/discrepancies (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref39">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref40">18</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref41">30</reflink>]). The ASC parent and teacher scales and items are publicly available (published in [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref42">17</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref43">16</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193226597-5">Procedures</hd> <p>The intervention studies from which the data were derived were approved by the Institutional Review Board and included attainment of written parental informed consent and child assent. Each parent–teacher pair completed baseline (pre-intervention) measures 6 weeks into the school year including the ASC. Upon return, each ASC was checked for errors (omitted items, etc.) and any error was immediately corrected with the informant. Each ASC was scored independently by two research assistants, with any discrepancy resolved by a third scorer. All data were then entered into a database and independently checked by a second research assistant.</p> <hd id="AN0193226597-6">Data Analysis Plan</hd> <p>The current sample of 124 pairs of raters was sufficient to detect a correlation of.30 at an alpha of.05 with power of.96 (calculated with G*Power). A correlation of.30 has been identified as a minimally important value and used in prior parent–teacher informant discrepancy studies for youth with ASD (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref44">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref45">29</reflink>]). Initially, the data were visually inspected (i.e., frequency counts, histograms, scatterplots) and all assumptions of normality were met. Data analyses included (a) parent versus teacher means (paired <emph>t</emph> test), (b) inter-rater agreement and consistency (ICC, Pearson correlation, Bland–Altman plot, and regression), and (c) examination of potential moderators of parent–teacher discrepancies (Pearson correlations and scatterplots). Effect sizes and confidence intervals (CIs) were also calculated. The Bland–Altman plot (including regression analysis) examined the degree of agreement between the two groups of raters (parents and teachers) and whether there was any systematic trend across the range of scores ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref46">7</reflink>]; see note under Figure 1 for a detailed description).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Bland–Altman Plot of Parent–Teacher Differences on the ASC. Note. The vertical (y) axis is the difference between parent and teacher ratings; the horizontal (x) axis is the mean of the parent–teacher pairs of ratings. The middle solid horizontal line references the mean difference score, and the solid lines above and below represent the 95% CI for the difference. The parent score was subtracted from the teacher score such that a positive difference score indicates that the teacher provided a higher rating for the child than the parent. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref47">7</reflink>] recommended regression analysis to examine the possibility of a systematic trend across the scale range by regressing the mean onto the difference score (the straight dotted line is the regression line and curved dotted lines above and below the regression line indicate the 95% CI). ASC = Adapted Skillstreaming Checklist ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref48">20</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193226597-7">Results</hd> <p>Initially, mean scores were compared for the two informant groups. The result was nonsignificant and the effect size was negligible (<emph>p</emph> =.19, <emph>d</emph> = −0.12; see Table 2). This suggested that overall, the informant groups did not differ in their ratings of the child sample.</p> <p>Table 2. Mean Difference and Correlations Between Parent and Teacher Ratings on the ASC.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th /><th /><th align="center" colspan="2">Mean score comparison</th><th align="center" colspan="2">ICC</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Pearson <italic>r</italic></th></tr><tr><th align="center">Parent <italic>M</italic> (<italic>SD</italic>)</th><th align="center">Teacher <italic>M</italic> (<italic>SD</italic>)</th><th align="center"><italic>t</italic>(123) <italic>p</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>d</italic> [95% CI]</th><th align="center">Coefficient (<italic>p</italic>)</th><th align="center">[95% CI]</th><th align="center">Coefficient (<italic>p</italic>)</th><th align="center">[95% CI]</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>106.56 (18.95)</td><td>103.60 (20.57)</td><td>−1.31 0.19</td><td>−0.12 [−0.29, 0.06]</td><td>.30 (.02)</td><td>[0.01, 0.51]</td><td>.18 (.045)</td><td>[0.00, 0.35]</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 <emph>Note.</emph> All calculations based on parent and teacher ratings of <emph>N</emph> = 124 children. The paired-samples <emph>t</emph> test was calculated as a two-tailed test. Standards for Cohen's <emph>d</emph>: small = 0.20, medium = 0.50, and large = 0.80 ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref49">9</reflink>]). Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) indicates the variance of ratings of an individual child by two informants and the variance across the entire sample of children. ICC calculated as two-way mixed effects model using absolute agreement definition of reliability ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref50">27</reflink>]). Pearson <emph>r</emph> indicates the linear correlation between the two informant groups. ASC <emph>=</emph> Adapted Skillstreaming Checklist ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref51">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>Next, parent–teacher reliability estimates were calculated. Two coefficients were calculated to examine the association in terms of agreement and linear relationship (see Table 2). Both coefficients were positive and statistically significant, but generally modest in magnitude (ICC =.30 and Pearson <emph>r</emph> =.18). A Bland–Altman plot was used to further examine parent–teacher agreement in ASC scores across the range of scores (see Figure 1). In Figure 1, the horizontal (x) axis represents the mean of the parent–teacher pairs of ratings, and the vertical (y) axis represents the difference between the parent–teacher ratings. The solid horizontal line at y = −2.97 represents the mean difference score, with the 95% CI for the difference represented by the solid lines at y = −52.62 and y = 46.68. A positive difference score indicates that the teacher provided a higher rating for the child than the parent. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref52">7</reflink>] recommended regression analysis (regressing the mean onto the difference score) to test the possibility of a systematic trend across the scale range. The result of this analysis showed no significant relationship between the difference scores and the means (<emph>B =</emph> 0.14, <emph>t =</emph> 0.92, <emph>p</emph> =.36; i.e., no systematic trend across the range of scores).</p> <p>To explore whether individual difference characteristics of the children or parents were associated with parent–teacher ASC rating differences, scatterplots and correlations were examined. The variables included were child age, IQ (WISC-IV short-form full scale, Verbal Comprehension Index [VCI], and Perceptual Reasoning Index [PRI]), language level (CASL short-form expressive and receptive scores), and ASD diagnostic symptoms (ADI-R), and parent education. No significant correlations were found between any potential moderating variable and parent–teacher ASC difference scores (see Table 3) and scatterplots did not indicate nonlinear relationships, abnormal distributions, or outliers that may have impacted the correlations. Due to the sample being skewed for sex and race, a reasonable analysis of those variables could not be completed ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref53">6</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 3. Correlations Between Parent–Teacher ASC Difference Scores and Potential Moderating Variables.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th /><th /><th align="center" rowspan="2">Parent education</th><th align="center" colspan="3">WISC-IV</th><th align="center" colspan="2">CASL</th><th align="center" colspan="3">ADI-R</th></tr><tr><th align="center">Measure</th><th align="center">Age</th><th align="center">FS</th><th align="center">VCI</th><th align="center">PRI</th><th align="center">Expressive</th><th align="center">Receptive</th><th align="center">SI</th><th align="center">CI</th><th align="center">RRB</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ASC difference scores</td><td>−0.03</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.03</td><td>−0.01</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.10</td><td>0.16</td><td>0.09</td><td>0.14</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>5 <emph>Note.</emph> ASC <emph>=</emph> Adapted Skillstreaming Checklist ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref54">20</reflink>]); WISC-IV = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref55">31</reflink>]); CASL = Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref56">8</reflink>]); ADI-<emph>R</emph> = Autism Diagnostic Interview–Revised ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref57">25</reflink>]); FS = Full Scale IQ (short-form); VCI = Verbal Comprehension Index (short-form); PRI = Perceptual Reasoning Index (short-form); SI = Impairment in Social Interaction; CI = Impairment in Communication; RRB = Restricted and Repetitive Behavior.</p> <hd id="AN0193226597-8">Discussion</hd> <p>Little research has comprehensively examined informant discrepancies in measures assessing the core ASD dimensions and no studies have examined these for the ASC. The ASC is unique in its assessment of core ASD diagnostic dimensions from a prosocial/adaptive skills perspective (social skills and behavioral flexibility/regulation) and use of continuous scaling to assess these. In addition, it has shown treatment sensitivity in response to a number of school and clinical social interventions for children with ASD (without ID) using various informants. Despite the use of ASC parent and teacher ratings in multiple studies, no studies have systematically examined informant discrepancies and studies are needed ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref58">16</reflink>]); this study comprehensively examined parent–teacher discrepancies for a sample of children with ASD (without ID).</p> <p>Overall, mean ASC parent and teacher ratings did not differ significantly and their ratings were significantly positively correlated but of low-to-moderate magnitude. The lack of mean score difference differed from [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref59">12</reflink>], who found significantly higher parent than teacher ratings of ASD symptom severity for their sample of children with ASD (without ID). The reason for this difference is unknown but might be a result of the way the two core ASD dimensions were assessed by each measure (i.e., prosocial/adaptive skills/behaviors vs. symptom severity). The modest correlations found in this study largely parallel those in other informant discrepancy studies of measures assessing ASD symptom severity in this population ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref60">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref61">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref62">26</reflink>]). Findings also revealed consistency of the differences in parent–teacher ASC scores across the score range (see Figure 1). The overall pattern of results suggested less consistency between parent and teacher ASC ratings at the child level (compared with the group-level mean score comparison); however, the differences were consistent across the range of scores. Last, none of the child or parent variables tested were associated with the parent–teacher differences in ASC scores. This finding was consistent with [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref63">12</reflink>] but differed from [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref64">14</reflink>], who found age and IQ moderated parent–teacher discrepancies in ASD symptom severity ratings. The somewhat mixed findings between studies may have been due to sample differences ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref65">12</reflink>] included children with ASD without ID and [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref66">14</reflink>] included youth with ASD from a broader age and IQ range).</p> <p>This study has a number of implications for educational and clinical practitioners. Researchers and clinicians using the ASC for group-level comparisons or outcome assessments in comparable children are unlikely to encounter significant parent–teacher discrepancies. This appears particularly applicable for social intervention researchers and program evaluators examining between-group mean scores for children with ASD (without ID). In contrast, parent and teacher ratings were less consistent (modest correlations) at the individual child level resulting in increased likelihood of a difference. Despite this, parent and teacher ratings were positively correlated, and the discrepancies did not appear to differ across the range of scores. This was a positive finding and suggested that the differences were consistent, and practitioners (educational and clinical) should not necessarily anticipate different degrees of discrepancy at different points along the score range. Analyses of potential discrepancies across the score range are important and needed because an overall estimate of association (e.g., correlation) does not indicate whether discrepancies differ systematically across the range of scores ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref67">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref68">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>It is important to understand the relationship between informant ratings and likelihood of discrepancies for measures assessing ASD features ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref69">14</reflink>]). The findings of less agreement in ASC scores at the individual child level suggests that educational and clinical practitioners should be prepared to follow-up and clarify the reason(s) for the differences ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref70">11</reflink>]). Although the prominence of the two diagnostic features suggests that discrepancies across settings would be less likely, children with ASD have characteristic difficulty with generalization of skills/behaviors across settings. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref71">11</reflink>] provides an applicable framework for examining informant discrepancies. According to the model, informant ratings can reflect convergence (agreement), domain-relevant information (variations across contexts), and measurement confounds (e.g., error, bias). Beyond informant agreement, practitioners should consider domain-relevant variations as a useful source of clinical information. Follow-up assessment techniques such as observations and/or interviews can help illuminate social contexts and contingencies that produce or sustain differences across settings, thus assisting with intervention development and efficacy determinations. Furthermore, discrepancies between parent and teacher reports may yield valuable information for tailoring an intervention in the nonresponse setting ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref72">11</reflink>]). Last, practitioners can use interviews to explore potential measurement confounds such as response bias, understanding of test items, etc. Such an approach will provide a more accurate understanding of the children's core clinical features within and across settings and help ensure they are not denied service and/or effective interventions are not discontinued when parent–teacher discrepancies occur ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref73">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>This study also provides valuable information for practitioners seeking measures that characterize the functioning/performance of children with ASD (without ID) from different perspectives. As previously noted, most measures assess the two core ASD dimensions based on the absence of social skills and presence of restricted and repetitive behaviors. In contrast, the ASC assesses these dimensions from a prosocial/adaptive skills framework. Although both types of measures provide information that is proximal to the two defining features, diagnostic and symptom measures characterize the <emph>disability</emph>, whereas the ASC characterizes the child's prosocial/adaptive <emph>abilities</emph> ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref74">15</reflink>]). As such, the ASC may assist practitioners to more effectively identify existing skills/behaviors, and skills to be targeted that are closely associated with the diagnosis. Practitioners can also utilize global distal measures of overall broad adaptive functioning ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref75">13</reflink>]); however, such measures capture information on a diverse range of adaptive and social skills that extend far beyond the core features of ASD (e.g., daily living skills, study skills; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref76">24</reflink>]). Given the various types of available measures, the ASC provides distinct but complementary information that can be used with other measures to better understand the functioning of children with ASD (without ID).</p> <p>This study had a number of strengths including a relatively large and well-characterized sample, comprehensive examination of parent–teacher discrepancies, evaluation of a treatment-sensitive scale, assessment of discrepancies across the scale range (Bland–Altman plot), and exploration of a range of potential moderators. Despite these strengths, several limitations warrant mention. The sample was largely male and White and had IQs above the ID range which limits generalizability. Although there is a need to study ratings in homogeneous ASD subgroups (as ratings and discrepancies can vary as a function of cognitive, language, and developmental level; [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref77">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref78">22</reflink>]), the inclusion criteria for the child sample may have restricted the variability for the child factors used in the moderator analyses. Last, this study only examined parent–teacher ratings and additional studies are needed of discrepancies for other informants (e.g., parent–parent, parent–child).</p> <p>The field is in need of measures that yield accurate information on the skills and core features of children with ASD and that are feasible in applied settings and treatment-sensitive ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref79">21</reflink>]). The ASC appears to possess such attributes as it is easy to complete, brief, and has been used in applied school and clinical settings. In addition, studies have shown it to be psychometrically sound for parent and teacher ratings of children with ASD (without ID), as well as treatment-sensitive in response to social interventions in different settings. Last, the ASC and its items are publicly available making it cost effective in applied settings.</p> <ref id="AN0193226597-9"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref8" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Achenbach T. M. (2011). Commentary: Definitely more than measurement error: But how should we understand and deal with informant discrepancies? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(4), 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.533416</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref12" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Achenbach T. M., McConaughy S. H., Howell C. T. (1987). 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J., Dissanayake C., Divan G., Freitag C. M., Gotelli M. M., Kasari C., Knapp M., Mundy P., Plank A., Schill L., Servili C., Shattuck P., McCauley J. B. (2022). The Lancet Commission on the future of care and clinical research in autism. The Lancet Commissions, 399, 271–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01541-5</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lord C., Corsello C., Grzadzinski R. (2014). Diagnostic instruments in autistic spectrum disorders. In Volkmar F. R., Rogers S. J., Paul R., Pelphrey K. A. (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders: Vol. 2. Assessment, interventions, and policy (4th ed.; pp. 609–660). John Wiley.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Maenner M. J., Warren Z., Willliams A. R., Amoakohene E., Bakian A. V., Bilder D. A., Durkin M. S., Fitzgerald R. T., Furnier S. M., Hughes M. M., Ladd-Acosta C. M., McArthur D., Pas E. T., Salinas A., Vehorn A., Williams S., Esler A., Grzybowski A., Hall-Lande J., Shaw K. A. (2023). Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2020. MMWR. Surveillance Summary, 72(2), 1–14. <ulink href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss7202a1">http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss7202a1</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> McDonald C. A., Lopata C., Donnelly J. P., Thomeer M. L., Rodgers J. D., Jordan A. K. (2016). Informant discrepancies in externalizing and internalizing symptoms and adaptive skills of high-functioning children with ASD. School Psychology Quarterly, 31(4), 467–477. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000150</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rutter M., LeCouteur A., Lord C. (2003). Autism diagnostic interview-revised. Western Psychological Services.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Schanding G. T., Nowell K. P., Goin-Kochel R. P. (2012). Utility of the Social Communication Questionnaire-Current and Social Responsiveness Scale as teacher-report screening tools for autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(8), 1705–1716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1412-9</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shrout P. E., Fleiss J. L. (1979). Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 420-428. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.420</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stolarova M., Wolf C., Rinker T., Brielmann A. (2014). How to assess and compare inter-rater reliability, agreement and correlation of ratings: An exemplary analysis of mother-father and parent-teacher expressive vocabulary rating pairs. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00509</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stratis E. A., Lecavalier L. (2015). Informant agreement for youth with autism spectrum disorder or intellectual disability: A meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(4), 1026–1041. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2258-8</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Thomeer M. L., Lopata C., Donnelly J. P., Booth A. J., Shanahan A., Federiconi V., McDonald C. A., Rodgers J. D. (2019). Community effectiveness RCT of a comprehensive psychosocial treatment for high-functioning children with ASD. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 48(Supp. 1), S119–S130. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1247359</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wechsler D. (2003). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (4th ed.). The Psychological Corporation.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0193226597-10"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Data reported in this study were collected as part of research supported by Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences Grants R324A080136 and R324A130216. Findings and conclusions are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the funding agency.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Jonathan D. Rodgers</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6769-1289</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Samantha E. Stanford; Amanda B. Nickerson; Christopher Lopata; Stephanie S. Fredrick; James P. Donnelly; Jonathan D. Rodgers and Marcus L. Thomeer</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref79"></nolink>
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  Data: Informant Discrepancies in the Assessment of Social Skills and Behaviors of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Samantha+E%2E+Stanford%22">Samantha E. Stanford</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Amanda+B%2E+Nickerson%22">Amanda B. Nickerson</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Christopher+Lopata%22">Christopher Lopata</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Stephanie+S%2E+Fredrick%22">Stephanie S. Fredrick</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22James+P%2E+Donnelly%22">James P. Donnelly</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jonathan+D%2E+Rodgers%22">Jonathan D. Rodgers</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6769-1289">0000-0001-6769-1289</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Marcus+L%2E+Thomeer%22">Marcus L. Thomeer</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Focus+on+Autism+and+Other+Developmental+Disabilities%22"><i>Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities</i></searchLink>. 2026 41(2):94-101.
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  Data: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Attitudes%22">Parent Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Competence%22">Interpersonal Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Behavior%22">Child Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Young+Children%22">Young Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preadolescents%22">Preadolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism+Spectrum+Disorders%22">Autism Spectrum Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Children%22">Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intelligence+Tests%22">Intelligence Tests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Check+Lists%22">Check Lists</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/10883576251353482
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  Data: 1088-3576<br />1538-4829
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  Data: This study examined informant discrepancies for parent and teacher ratings of social skills and behavioral flexibility/regulation of 124 U.S. children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), ages 6 to 11 years. Scores on the Adapted Skillstreaming Checklist (ASC) were examined for mean differences, level of agreement, and moderators of difference scores between informant groups. Results indicated no significant differences between parent and teacher ASC mean scores. Parent and teacher scores were low-to-moderately correlated (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.30 and Pearson r = 0.18) and the Bland-Altman plot and regression analysis revealed no systematic differences in agreement across the range of scores. None of the variables moderated the parent-teacher difference scores. Overall, practitioners should not necessarily anticipate parent-teacher differences when using the ASC for group-level comparisons. However, ratings were less consistent (modest correlations) at the individual child level. Less agreement at the individual child level suggests that practitioners should be prepared to follow-up and clarify the reason(s) for the differences.
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  Data: 2026
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        Value: 10.1177/10883576251353482
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 8
        StartPage: 94
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Parent Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Competence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Young Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preadolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Autism Spectrum Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Children
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      – SubjectFull: Intelligence Tests
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      – SubjectFull: Check Lists
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      – SubjectFull: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Informant Discrepancies in the Assessment of Social Skills and Behaviors of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
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      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Samantha E. Stanford
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Amanda B. Nickerson
      – PersonEntity:
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            NameFull: Christopher Lopata
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            NameFull: Stephanie S. Fredrick
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          Name:
            NameFull: James P. Donnelly
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Jonathan D. Rodgers
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            NameFull: Marcus L. Thomeer
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 06
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1088-3576
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1538-4829
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 41
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
              Type: main
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