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'It All Comes Full Circle': The Impact of Multilingual Literacy Pedagogies with Teachers, Students, and Families

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Title: 'It All Comes Full Circle': The Impact of Multilingual Literacy Pedagogies with Teachers, Students, and Families
Language: English
Authors: Victoria Pennington (ORCID 0000-0002-3278-1476), Lindsey W. Rowe (ORCID 0000-0001-8874-7560), Emily Howell, Nicole Ferguson-Sams, Mihaela Gazioglu, Kavita Mittapalli, Amlan Banerjee
Source: Reading Research Quarterly. 2026 61(2).
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 24
Publication Date: 2026
Sponsoring Agency: Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA) (ED)
Contract Number: T365Z210089
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Preschool Education
Elementary Education
Kindergarten
Primary Education
Descriptors: Preschool Teachers, Kindergarten, Faculty Development, Multilingualism, Literacy, Literacy Education, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, Self Efficacy, Child Caregivers
DOI: 10.1002/rrq.70105
ISSN: 0034-0553
1936-2722
Abstract: This study examines how sustained professional development (PD) in multilingual literacy pedagogies shapes teacher's pedagogical practices and interactions with students and caregivers. Situated in a high-needs district in the Southeastern U.S., the PD was embedded in a two-year online MEd program with a cohort of 23 teachers, paired with a caregiver literacy course for multilingual families. Using a case study approach, we closely analyzed two focal kindergarten teachers, their students (n = 117) across three school years, and student caregivers (n = 6) to explore the ecological reach of the PD. Data sources included teacher interviews, surveys, and multimodal coursework; student surveys; and caregiver surveys. Drawing on sociocognitive theory and culturally sustaining pedagogies (CSP), findings show increases in teacher knowledge, self-efficacy, and implementation, alongside strengthened relationships with caregivers. Caregivers reported increased confidence and knowledge in supporting children's language and literacy practices, highlighting the reciprocal nature of learning across school and home. Students showed growth in literacy engagement, with teacher observations underscoring shifts in participation and confidence. This "full circle" effect demonstrates that PD designed for teachers can have sustained, systemic impact when extended to the broader educational ecology. The study offers implications for research, professional learning design, and policy aimed at sustaining multilingual students' linguistic and cultural resources through coordinated teacher and caregiver support.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1503967
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0193225972;[nrnu]02apr.26;2026Apr27.05:00;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0193225972-1">"It All Comes Full Circle": The Impact of Multilingual Literacy Pedagogies With Teachers, Students, and Families </title> <p>This study examines how sustained professional development (PD) in multilingual literacy pedagogies shapes teacher's pedagogical practices and interactions with students and caregivers. Situated in a high‐needs district in the Southeastern U.S., the PD was embedded in a two‐year online MEd program with a cohort of 23 teachers, paired with a caregiver literacy course for multilingual families. Using a case study approach, we closely analyzed two focal kindergarten teachers, their students (n = 117) across three school years, and student caregivers (n = 6) to explore the ecological reach of the PD. Data sources included teacher interviews, surveys, and multimodal coursework; student surveys; and caregiver surveys. Drawing on sociocognitive theory and culturally sustaining pedagogies (CSP), findings show increases in teacher knowledge, self‐efficacy, and implementation, alongside strengthened relationships with caregivers. Caregivers reported increased confidence and knowledge in supporting children's language and literacy practices, highlighting the reciprocal nature of learning across school and home. Students showed growth in literacy engagement, with teacher observations underscoring shifts in participation and confidence. This full circle effect demonstrates that PD designed for teachers can have sustained, systemic impact when extended to the broader educational ecology. The study offers implications for research, professional learning design, and policy aimed at sustaining multilingual students' linguistic and cultural resources through coordinated teacher and caregiver support.</p> <p>Keywords: caregivers; culturally sustaining pedagogies; multilingual learners; professional development</p> <p>"It all comes full circle": The impact of multilingual literacy pedagogies with teachers, students, and families graphical abstract.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-toc-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-toc-0001.jpg" title="." /> </p> <p></p> <p>I have a new perspective on my career, my life as a teacher, the students, what they bring. I think that we need to just start shouting it out. Teachers can benefit from this [professional development focused on multilingual literacy pedagogies]. It changed me and I was Spanish [speaking] already. Now I understand how it all comes full circle. It's not about just speaking one language. We need more teachers to know about this program because trust me, it has changed my world immensely and it has done the same for my classmates.‐Judy, Exit Interview</p> <p>A skilled teacher can transform the educational experiences of children and families, creating life‐long ripples of impact (Mapp and Bergman [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref1">30</reflink>]; Yoon et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref2">41</reflink>]). In the opening reflection, Judy (all participant names are pseudonyms), a second‐year kindergarten teacher, captures the transformative potential of professional development (PD) on praxis. She provided this reflection in an interview at the conclusion of a 2‐year PD focused on multilingual literacy pedagogies. Despite the potential for PD to positively impact all students, marginalized students often face systemic oppression, which perpetuates perceived gaps in their academic performance, placing them <emph>behind</emph> their monolingual peers (Ascenzi‐Moreno and Seltzer [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref3">1</reflink>]; Baker‐Bell [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]). Educators need professional preparation and ongoing support to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse population of students. Educational ecosystems, comprised of teachers, students, caregivers, and the broader community, are intricate, interdependent, and constantly evolving (Mapp and Bergman [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref5">30</reflink>]). These interconnected systems are mutually influential, with changes in one component reverberating across others (Bronfenbrenner [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref6">7</reflink>]; Stanley and Kuo [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref7">38</reflink>]). The interplay between teachers, caregivers, and students underscores the need for PD that supports the entire ecosystem's capacity for growth. To understand and cultivate these systems, research must examine the interconnections within educational ecosystems to include stakeholders beyond teachers such as students and caregivers.</p> <p>To address this challenge, this investigation uses a case study approach to explore how teacher PD around literacy instruction for multilingual learners (MLs) influenced the pedagogy and practice of a cohort of in‐service teachers, particularly in relation to their interactions with students and caregivers within multilingual literacy contexts. Specifically, we ask: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>) <emph>How did participation in a literacy PD focused on instruction for MLs impact teachers' knowledge and self‐efficacy?</emph> (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref9">2</reflink>) <emph>How did this PD shape teachers' implementation of pedagogy and interactions with students and caregivers?</emph></p> <hd id="AN0193225972-3">Theoretical Framing and Related Literature</hd> <p>We frame this research using two related theoretical perspectives: sociocognitive (Gee [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref10">19</reflink>]) and critical (Freire [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref11">17</reflink>]). Sociocognitive theory conceptualizes knowledge and cognition as socially situated and connected to an individual's self‐efficacy (Gee [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref12">19</reflink>]). From this perspective, <emph>self‐efficacy</emph> can be defined as the ability to see oneself as a competent participant engaging meaningfully in social and cultural practices that affirm one's identity and role within a community (Gee [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref13">19</reflink>]). Self‐efficacy has been conceptualized as a socio‐affective construct shaped by teachers' beliefs about their capacity to enact instructional practices (Bandura [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref14">5</reflink>]; Moradi et al. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref15">32</reflink>]). Teachers often develop self‐efficacy through personal experiences, social influences, and environmental factors (Bandura [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref16">5</reflink>]) such as PD. Specifically, when considering teacher PD within an ecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref17">7</reflink>]), the full circle of PD can be explored, from the individual teacher to the students, caregivers, and broadening community, offering a nuanced understanding of how these interwoven systems can have impacts beyond individuals to create sustainable changes to systems. Another sociocognitive approach to understanding the impacts of teacher PD is Desimone's ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref18">14</reflink>]) effectiveness model, which includes <emph>knowledge</emph> and <emph>implementation</emph>. In this model, PD enhances teacher knowledge and skills, shaping beliefs about self‐efficacy and students, which in turn influences praxis and ultimately can improve student learning outcomes (Desimone [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref19">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>We also draw on the critical framework of praxis, or the dynamic interplay of reflection and action toward transforming the world, including posing questions about power and identity (Freire [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref20">17</reflink>]). Conceptualizations of critical praxis development for teachers acknowledge students' cultural and linguistic repertoires, such as culturally responsive pedagogies (Ladson‐Billings [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref21">26</reflink>]), and culturally sustaining pedagogies (CSP; Paris and Alim [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref22">34</reflink>]). CSP builds on culturally responsive pedagogy (Ladson‐Billings [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref23">26</reflink>]), which highlights effective strategies and perspectives for teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students in U.S. schools. Paris and Alim ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref24">34</reflink>]) extend this framework by positioning these pedagogies as <emph>sustaining</emph>, acknowledging students' unique cultural and linguistic resources as strengths that actively contribute to their overall success. In this view, students' diverse repertoires, used in their everyday lives, are not barriers to be overcome or set aside upon entering school. Rather, the pluralism of their linguistic and cultural identities should be embraced, validated, and sustained. For this project, CSP frames both the PD teachers in the project received and how we view the language and literacy practices of those teachers and their students. We attend to how CSP impacted teacher's interactions with students and caregivers and how their views on language and literacy practices shifted over the PD.</p> <p>Additionally, we explore how CSP extends beyond its impact on teachers and students, creating lasting effects that strengthen the broader community's capacity to support culturally and linguistically diverse students. Bringing sociocognitive and critical lenses together can move toward ensuring equitable educational ecologies that embrace diversity and have effects that move beyond the classroom (Clark‐Louque and Latunde [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref25">12</reflink>]). In this study, we weave these frameworks together as a lens to examine how CSP‐informed PD focused on multilingual literacy pedagogies influenced educational ecosystems, specifically through a focus on teacher self‐efficacy, knowledge, and implementation.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-4">Related Literature: PD, CSP, and MLs</hd> <p>This research builds from three related bodies of literature on (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref26">1</reflink>) PD on CSP, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref27">2</reflink>) impacts of CSP PD on MLs, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref28">3</reflink>) ML caregivers and PD. Figure 1 shows our conceptualization of the relationship between these bodies of work, with interlocking cogs representing how PD on CSP intersects with both ML outcomes and ML caregiver engagement. The figure emphasizes the interdependent nature of these strands, suggesting that effective PD in CSP supports teachers and fosters more inclusive practices that benefit ML students and their families.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Bodies of professional development (PD) literature explored." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193225972-6">Professional Development on Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies</hd> <p>In their foundational work, Paris and Alim ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref29">33</reflink>]) caution that although asset‐based approaches, such as culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson‐Billings [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref30">26</reflink>]), aim to honor students' linguistic and cultural resources, they frequently fall short of actively sustaining these resources over time, particularly amid assimilationist pressures. Despite its promise, PD grounded in CSP remains limited, partly because of challenges of engaging educators in sustained conversations about race, language, power, and economic status (Freire [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref31">17</reflink>]; hooks [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref32">23</reflink>]). These challenges have intensified amid recent political movements that misrepresent equity‐oriented frameworks such as CSP, leading to policy restrictions that undermine justice‐focused teaching (Hambacher et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref33">21</reflink>]; Kelly and Taylor [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref34">25</reflink>]; York et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref35">42</reflink>]). Effective CSP‐aligned PD therefore requires long‐term, critically reflective engagement that supports teachers in resisting deficit narratives and sustaining students' cultural and linguistic assets.</p> <p>Amid these challenges, some scholars have identified key features of effective PD focused on equity and CSP. Parkhouse et al. ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref36">35</reflink>]) conducted a review of 40 studies of multicultural and equity‐oriented PD and found that sustained, impactful professional learning is most likely when PD includes active teacher engagement, culturally specific content, and attention to sociopolitical contexts. Similarly, Babinski et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref37">2</reflink>]) implemented a yearlong randomized controlled trial designed to strengthen K‐1 teachers' literacy instruction for MLs. The PD emphasized strengths‐based pedagogy, evidence‐based literacy strategies, and collaboration with ML specialists. Their findings showed that effective PD enhanced instructional strategy uptake and teacher agency. As defined by Chen ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref38">10</reflink>]), teacher agency refers to the capacity of educators to make informed, context‐responsive decisions grounded in their professional knowledge, confidence, and critical understanding of equity.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-7">Impact of CSP PD on MLs</hd> <p>Multilingual literacy pedagogy draws on research‐based instructional strategies aligned with ML needs, while maintaining a focus on sustaining students' cultural and linguistic assets, essential elements of CSP. This approach includes scaffolds such as oral language development, use of cognates, culturally and linguistically diverse read‐alouds, and vocabulary routines (Baker et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref39">3</reflink>]; Li et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref40">27</reflink>]) situated in students' pluralistic identities. Importantly, multilingual literacy pedagogy emphasizes not only the <emph>what</emph> of instruction but also the <emph>how</emph>, supporting teachers in planning, collaborating, and implementing these strategies in ways that reflect the languages, experiences, and literacies of their students (Flores and Rosa [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref41">16</reflink>]). Babinski et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref42">2</reflink>]) demonstrated that a strengths‐based, multilingual literacy pedagogy embedded in PD resulted in increased use of evidence‐based strategies, improved teacher collaboration, and significant gains in students' reading and writing achievement (Cantrell et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref43">8</reflink>]). These findings suggest that multilingual literacy pedagogy offers a promising and coherent framework for enacting CSP in early literacy contexts (Machado [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref44">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although there is growing evidence that teacher PD can enhance instructional practices (Desimone [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref45">14</reflink>]), few studies explicitly link these improvements to measurable gains in MLs' literacy outcomes. One example of this work comes from Babinski et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref46">2</reflink>]) who found that students whose teachers participated in a year‐long PD focused on multilingual literacy pedagogy made statistically significant gains in early literacy domains such as language and writing, and literature and information, as compared to students whose teachers did not participate in this PD. Similarly, Cantrell et al. ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref47">8</reflink>]) found that yearlong PD improved teachers' culturally responsive literacy instruction and student reading outcomes.</p> <p>These findings offer growing empirical support for CSP‐oriented PD and its potential to shift teaching practice and improve the language and literacy outcomes of MLs, especially when PD includes sustained engagement in courses, guided reflection, and strong connections to classroom practice.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-8">ML Caregivers and PD</hd> <p>Well‐supported ML caregivers play a vital role in sustaining children's language and literacy development (López‐Robertson [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref48">28</reflink>]). Yet, caregiver engagement, particularly among multilingual families, remains underexamined in the PD literature, where focus often centers on teacher outcomes (Parkhouse et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref49">35</reflink>]). This gap is especially significant in multilingual communities, where caregivers often serve as rich, yet untapped, sources of linguistic and cultural knowledge (Crook et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref50">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>Recent studies highlight that PD grounded in cultural responsiveness can foster reciprocal learning between teachers and families, strengthening home‐school connections and caregiver confidence (Crook et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref51">13</reflink>]; Howell et al. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref52">24</reflink>]; Vega et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref53">40</reflink>]). Sustained, inclusive PD that integrates translanguaging strategies and multilingual materials further positions caregivers as co‐educators and knowledge‐holders, encouraging teachers to adopt linguistically inclusive practices that honor family voices and strengthen literacy partnerships (Gazioglu et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref54">18</reflink>]; Harris et al. [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref55">22</reflink>]). Such approaches expand CSP beyond classrooms, cultivating collaborative, community‐based literacy ecologies that sustain children's home languages and identities.</p> <p>Together, these findings suggest that PD grounded in CSP can meaningfully expand to include caregivers, creating opportunities for reciprocal learning, deeper home‐school connections, and the co‐construction of multilingual literacy practices across settings. In the context of this study, multilingual literacy pedagogy extended to families through intentional caregiver‐facing PD components, supporting caregivers' knowledge of literacy strategies and their confidence in supporting children's pluralistic development. By foregrounding caregivers as active participants in the educational ecology, this study addresses a critical gap and offers a more holistic approach to sustaining students' home languages and literacies while building an ecological framework for sustainable capacity building.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-9">Full Circle CSP Ecologies</hd> <p>To sustain multilingual literacy pedagogies, the reviewed literature highlights the need for PD that goes beyond individual teachers to also include the ecologies surrounding them, encompassing students, caregivers, and their communities. To address these gaps, the current study focuses on the impacts of multilingual literacy PD on individual teachers, their students, and the caregivers of their students. This ecological perspective positions PD not as a one‐time intervention, but as a process of cultivation that nurtures growth from individuals outward to the community. The cross‐pollination of teachers with students, caregivers, and communities contributes to a vibrant and interdependent ecosystem of culturally sustaining learning.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-10">Methodology</hd> <p>This analysis is a component of a larger design‐based research (DBR) project. In educational settings, DBR implements iterations of change to classrooms or teachers with the goal of pedagogical and theoretical growth toward more effective educational approaches (Reinking and Bradley [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref56">36</reflink>]). This DBR project had two main strands, both focused on the goal of improving the educational experiences of MLs through adult learning about literacy supports for these students. First, a cohort of teachers received PD in the form of an online MEd focused on students' diverse language and literacy practices. Second, ML caregivers attended their own literacy course focused on literacy supports for their children. This study specifically draws on case study methods (Dyson and Genishi [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref57">15</reflink>]) to analyze the experiences of two focal teachers from the larger study. In doing so, we also explore the experiences of caregivers (<emph>n</emph> = 6) and students (<emph>n</emph> = 117) who worked with these teachers to emphasize the relational impact of the teacher PD. We paired the teacher data from interviews, surveys, and multimodal artifacts from a PD course with caregivers' survey data collected during a caregiver literacy course and student survey data across four semesters.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-11">Context and Participants</hd> <p>Participants were a part of a PD project aimed at increasing capacity for a high‐needs district in the Southeastern U.S. to teach MLs. Over 80% of students in the district were identified as non‐white and 7.2% of students as multilingual. These students most commonly spoke Spanish, Vietnamese, Tagalog, or Hindi. Recruited cohort teachers (<emph>n =</emph> 30 at baseline, <emph>n</emph> = 23 by the end of the PD) were 90% female. Roughly half of the teachers identified as non‐white and one‐third as bilingual. Teachers had varying levels of teaching experience and worked in grades pre‐kindergarten to 12. Two cohorts of teachers in two school districts participated in the PD. This paper focuses on the initial cohort of participating teachers and caregivers. This project included two forms of PD: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref58">1</reflink>) PD for teachers in the form of an online MEd in Literacy with certification for teaching MLs, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref59">2</reflink>) PD for caregivers in the form of a course for family members (<emph>n =</emph> 25) in the district to meet and develop literacy support for their MLs through six in‐person meetings.</p> <p>Table 1 shows the progression of the PD offered for participants. Not all coursework is listed; we have emphasized the courses that specifically addressed linguistic and cultural diversity.</p> <p>1 TABLE Condensed professional development sequence and related literacy practices.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Semester</th><th align="center">PD offered</th><th align="center">Description</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Prior to PD</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">Summer I</td><td align="center">EDLT 8250</td><td align="center">Cultural diversity.</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Fall I</td><td align="center">EDLT 8140</td><td align="center">Reading and writing instruction and assessment for MLs</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Spring I</td><td align="center">EDLT 8240</td><td align="center">Practicum for ML Teaching</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Summer II</td><td align="center">EDLT 8230; CSP Modules 1–2 (Foundations & Instructional Design)</td><td align="center">Introduction to linguistics. Foundations of CSP. Designing instruction using funds of knowledge</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Fall II</td><td align="center">EDLT 8220; CSP Modules 3–4 (Environments & Advocacy)</td><td align="center">Principles and strategies for MLs. Inclusive environments and CSP teaching strategies. Advocating for MLs</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Spring II (Caregivers)</td><td align="center">Caregiver Literacy Course</td><td align="center">8 modules supporting caregivers with home literacy practices</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>To select the teacher cases focused on in this analysis, we identified caregivers who reported specific teachers who recommended them to join the caregiver cohort. Of the 23 teachers in the cohort at the conclusion of the PD, three teachers suggested participating caregivers for the course. Other caregivers may have received suggestions to join from cohort teachers, but they did not specifically name them in the initial survey. The research team reviewed memos from ongoing analysis through constant comparative methods (Glaser and Strauss [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref60">20</reflink>]) across the semesters of data collection and noted that one of these teachers, Alice, represented a typical case, or one that aligned with the patterns of the larger cohort (Thomas [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref61">39</reflink>]). We identified another teacher, Judy, as a theoretically rich (Dyson and Genishi [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref62">15</reflink>]) case, which made visible "cultural processes, practices, and ideologies" not typical of all participants (Bloome et al. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref63">6</reflink>], 105). We selected these two teachers as focal cases for close analysis as they were in similar teaching positions; both were kindergarten teachers who identified as Black women. Alice identified primarily as an English speaker who spoke some Spanish, and Judy identified as bilingual in Spanish and English (see Table 2).</p> <p>2 TABLE Focal participants.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Participant</th><th align="center">Role</th><th align="center">Languages beyond English</th><th align="center">Race/ethnicity</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Alice</td><td align="center">Focal Teacher (K4)</td><td align="center">Spanish learner</td><td align="center">Black or African American</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Eliza</td><td align="center">Caregiver</td><td align="center">Spanish</td><td align="center">Hispanic/Latino</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Kristen</td><td align="center">Caregiver</td><td align="center">Filipino/Arabic</td><td align="center">Asian or Pacific Islander</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Judy</td><td align="center">Focal Teacher (K5)</td><td align="center">Spanish</td><td align="center">Hispanic/Latino and Black or African American</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Alan</td><td align="center">Caregiver</td><td align="center">Swahili/Kalenjin</td><td align="center">Black or African American</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Cora</td><td align="center">Caregiver</td><td align="center">Creole/French</td><td align="center">Black or African American</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Nora</td><td align="center">Caregiver</td><td align="center">Spanish</td><td align="center">Hispanic/Latino</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Sara</td><td align="center">Caregiver</td><td align="center">Arabic</td><td align="center">White or Caucasian</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Focal caregivers (<emph>n =</emph> 6) participated in the caregiver course on the basis of recommendations from the two focal teachers and were linguistically and culturally diverse. They reported speaking Spanish, Filipino, Arabic, Swahili, Kalenjin, Creole, and French and identified as Black, Latino, Asian, and White. Alice recommended Eliza and Kristen for the caregiver course, and Judy recommended Alan, Cora, Nora, and Sara.</p> <p>As the study overlapped three school years, there were three student groups represented for each teacher. Student attrition also led to varied student numbers across time. Students of focal teachers were diverse, with 12%–50% of Judy's students reporting they spoke a language beyond English, including Spanish, Quechua, and Swahili. Alice's students reported speaking Korean, Spanish, and Arabic, and she taught 10%–28% MLs across the three student groups.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-12">Data Corpus</hd> <p>Several data sources provided information on these two teachers, their students, and caregivers. First, teacher data collected for each teacher included six semestrial surveys assessing teacher knowledge, self‐efficacy, and implementation, four teaching logs recording typical teacher instructional practices, three interviews, and teachers' multimodal artifacts from their online coursework for the Literacy MEd. Anecdotal notes (memos) were taken by the research team during weekly meetings.</p> <p>Student data included seven student surveys across 2 years with data pertaining to three groups of students taught by these teachers. Student surveys provided information about the literacy knowledge and self‐efficacy of students in these teachers' classrooms, as well as any support from their caregivers. As the kindergarten students of the two focal teachers were 4 and 5 years old, the teachers recorded student responses. Finally, caregiver data were collected as part of the caregiver literacy course and included pre‐ and post‐surveys asking caregivers to reflect on their knowledge and confidence regarding multilingual literacy, individual meeting surveys, discussion board responses, and anecdotal notes taken by the research team.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-13">Data Analysis</hd> <p>As mentioned, cases were selected on the basis of caregivers reporting that their child's teacher recommended them for the course. Two teachers, Alice and Judy, taught 4‐year‐old kindergarten (K4) and five‐year‐old kindergarten (K5), respectively. Quantitative analysis situated within a qualitative framework (Christ and Makarani [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref64">11</reflink>]) provided additional rationale for selecting the cases, as the two focal teachers followed general trends of the cohort. Creating a data display (Miles et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref65">31</reflink>]) allowed us to examine the corpus qualitatively and gather nuance provided by multiple data sources, including multimodal reflection artifacts. Figure 2 shows this display, which includes data from each case and their respective caregivers. This cross‐referencing of participants' perspectives was central to answering both research questions, particularly in tracing how shifts in knowledge, self‐efficacy, and implementation were experienced relationally.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-fig-0002.jpg" title="2 Mixed methods data display." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193225972-15">Analysis of Quantitative Data</hd> <p>Responses to teacher surveys and logs, student surveys, and caregivers' pre‐ and post‐course surveys were analyzed across time. Descriptive statistics formed the quantitative overview. We calculated cohort means for each item within the domains of knowledge, self‐efficacy, and implementation and used these means as a baseline for comparison with focal teachers, students, and caregivers. This allowed us to examine patterns related to RQ1 regarding shifts in teacher knowledge and self‐efficacy and to identify divergence or convergence from cohort‐level trends. Consistent with sociocognitive perspectives that position knowledge, self‐efficacy, and instructional practices as influential, these domains were analyzed together to examine how shifts in beliefs and knowledge aligned with changes in practice over time (Moradi et al. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref66">32</reflink>]).</p> <p>Teacher surveys included a battery of 16 questions regarding the domains of knowledge, self‐efficacy, and implementation, with respondents moving sliding scales to indicate level of knowledge (1 = definitely false, 5 = definitely true), confidence (1 = no confidence, 5 = complete confidence), and implementation during a week of teaching (0%, 100%). Teachers' (<emph>n =</emph> 30 at baseline) surveys were analyzed across the six semestrial points by comparing the cohort averages for their self‐reported knowledge, self‐efficacy, and implementation. The focal teachers' individual trajectories were then compared to the cohort means to identify alignment or divergence.</p> <p>Caregiver pre‐ and post‐surveys asked 26 questions regarding knowledge and self‐efficacy with open responses for suggestions, questions, and implementation. To analyze the quantitative caregiver data, descriptive statistics were calculated for each item across the two semesters. Items which showed lower average scores across cohorts were noted (i.e., "I know how to provide positive, constructive feedback in response to student writing.") as were areas where caregivers rated themselves higher (i.e., "How confident do you feel in your understanding of your student's stages of development/learning?"). We then compared cohort‐level means with responses from focal caregivers to identify patterns and growth trajectories. All caregivers reported increased average knowledge and confidence from pre‐ to post‐surveys. Additionally, caregivers rated the confidence of their ML student in literacy and content knowledge.</p> <p>These findings helped contextualize teacher learning and implementation from multiple perspectives, aligning with RQ2, which examined how PD shaped teachers' pedagogy and relationships with students and caregivers. Therefore, after analyzing quantitative data to gain a picture of overall trends across the cohort and comparing these to focal cases, we turned to analyze the qualitative data to look in depth at teacher, student, and caregiver experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-16">Analysis of Qualitative Data</hd> <p>To prepare qualitative data for analysis, we transcribed the six interviews and four multimodal artifacts collected from the two focal teachers, using descriptive language and memos to gather holistic impressions (Saldaña [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref67">37</reflink>]). Surveys (<emph>n</emph> = 6) and teaching logs (<emph>n</emph> = 4) from teachers were also reviewed, and memos captured overall trends and open‐ended responses. To further analyze qualitative data, we conducted four iterative coding cycles (see Table 3). Open coding consisted of line‐by‐line structural and descriptive coding (Charmaz [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref68">9</reflink>]). Descriptive coding included details related to CSP principles, such as acknowledging multilingual literacy practices. For example, the descriptive code "describing practices to help MLs" emerged in the first round of coding. This code captured instances across interviews, logs, and artifacts in which teachers articulated instructional supports for MLs and allowed us to trace shifts in how teachers conceptualized effective practice over time, particularly in relation to honoring multilingual literacy practices. In the second phase, we compared descriptive codes to construct emergent themes. Themes were compared to the structural codes derived from the focal domains of contextual/historical information, knowledge, self‐efficacy, and implementation and collapsed into theoretical codes. Finally, we looked across the cases to identify cross‐case theoretical codes, further developing similarities and differences in the cases. The first two authors met weekly to discuss and come to a consensus on codes. These qualitative processes were central to both research questions, offering insight into how participants experienced and enacted their learning and how those experiences influenced implementation and relationships. We organize the findings by detailing the emergent patterns for each structural code and its related theoretical code. We conclude with the cross‐case theoretical codes in the discussion.</p> <p>3 TABLE Coding progression.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Structural code</th><th align="center">Case</th><th align="center">Sample data</th><th align="center">Descriptive code (example)</th><th align="center">Emergent theme (example)</th><th align="center">Theoretical code</th><th align="center">Cross‐case theoretical code</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Contextual/Historical</td><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">Has 1 multilingual student</td><td align="center">Number of ML students</td><td align="center">Describing teaching experiences</td><td align="center">n/a</td><td align="center">n/a</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"I was born and raised in Panama."</td><td align="center">Describing cultural background</td><td align="center">Describing personal experiences</td><td align="center">n/a</td><td align="center">n/a</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Knowledge</td><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"It [PD] definitely has improved my capability to lead PD. I'm actually leading one in a week."</td><td align="center">Leading PD</td><td align="center">Using PD learning to lead local PD</td><td align="center">Developing knowledge through practice and reflection</td><td align="center">Developing Knowledge</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"For example, they [professors] gave me Colorín Colorado. They gave me a couple more resources, and I have been incorporating those inside of my classroom."</td><td align="center">Learning about new resources</td><td align="center">PD impacts on knowledge teaching</td><td align="center">Using knowledge as a bridge to equity</td><td align="center">Applying Knowledge</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"So the [interactive white board] is used rather frequently, pretty much all day every day, because with Pre‐K it's easier to use visuals and to incorporate the music and the movement with them."</td><td align="center">Explaining technology tool use</td><td align="center">Applying technology knowledge to support students</td><td align="center">Applying knowledge to support student learning and development</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"I know that they [MLs] have to not only listen, hear, listen, repeat. So, I purchased pipes, water pipes, and I turn them into phones. ... so they could hear themselves saying the word"</td><td align="center">Describing classroom practices</td><td align="center">Helping students with new learning</td><td align="center">Adapting and growing knowledge through practice</td><td align="center">Adapting Knowledge</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"I've learned that [student diversity] it is important because it's who they are and we have to start with acknowledging them and their world before we can introduce them into something new."</td><td align="center">Reflecting on ML student diversity</td><td align="center">Acknowledging student diversity</td><td align="center">Building knowledge through cultural and contextual awareness</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"I would like to offer more help to parents... Because with so many different cultures and educational experience, everybody does not understand how our system works and what they can do to help their kids."</td><td align="center">Desiring PD regarding ML caregiver support</td><td align="center">Desiring ML caregiver support</td><td align="center">Building knowledge ecosystems to empower communities</td><td align="center">Extending Knowledge</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Self‐efficacy</td><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"I'm somewhat confident because I speak a little Spanish and all my MLs have been Spanish speakers except two, but I don't know other languages fluently"</td><td align="center">Describing confidence in teaching MLs</td><td align="center">Confidence in ML teaching</td><td align="center">Navigating confidence through reflection</td><td align="center">Reflecting on Current Practices</td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">The grant improved my confidence teaching MLs by "Providing me with more resources and giving me a new perspective on how to better utilize strategies that I already have, but to aim them where it is more understandable to multilingual learners."</td><td align="center">Describing grant's impact on SE</td><td align="center">PD impact on confidence_teaching MLs</td><td align="center">Strengthening confidence with strategies and resources</td><td align="center">Strengthening Confidence Through Application of Strategies and Resources</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"So now I feel more confident. I don't have to seek outside help. I know how to assess my students and use these data to meet my students at their level. I'm able to use the research to support, for example, why I am incorporating wait time for my multilingual learners."</td><td align="center">Describing confidence in teaching MLs</td><td align="center">Describing and applying PD learning</td><td align="center">Building confidence through the application of knowledge</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"I think it's just I'm getting better at what I'm doing because now I'm using all these tools and all the strategies and everything is coming back full circle. So yeah, this is amazing."</td><td align="center">Reflecting on the increase in confidence</td><td align="center">Describing an increase in self‐efficacy in reflection</td><td align="center">Recognizing growth and revisiting practices</td><td align="center">Recognizing transformational growth</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"So when I share resources with my parents, I let them know what I'm sharing, why I am sharing that, and how it is important for them, for the child, to use these tools at home."</td><td align="center">Providing advice for teachers using technology for ML caregivers</td><td align="center">Implementing technology support for ML caregivers</td><td align="center">Supporting self‐efficacy through community and resource integration</td><td align="center">Extending self‐efficacy through community integration</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Implementation</td><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"Most of our technology is used just to like a schedule, how we go throughout the day."</td><td align="center">Describing general support</td><td align="center">Supporting all students</td><td align="center">Helping students</td><td align="center">Acknowledging Needs</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"In the future I will use the word wall to help listening to words, dictation and editing."</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">How does your teacher help you? Sounding out words, conversations, Flash cards, highlight areas of work, Repetition, Visuals, Breaking apart words, Redirection, Chunking, Work on language skills, Visual images, Breaking down information (Student Survey Responses)</td><td align="center">Procedures for getting help</td><td align="center">Describing teacher support</td><td align="center">Delivering individualized support</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"I use where they're at in their data, what they're struggling with to mix my groups so they can get that extra support."</td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"I use technology with MLs to provide them with more visuals and kinesthetic movement."</td><td align="center">Using technology with MLs</td><td align="center">Supporting MLs with technology</td><td align="center">Providing equitable support</td><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"I also use technology for the students to record themselves, so they can hear themselves and their parents can hear them."</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"So with her [ML] we've been working on her name, getting her to identify the letters in her name... And that she focuses on just learning those letters and letter sounds."</td><td align="center">Working with ML students' strengths</td><td align="center">Implementing ML support</td><td align="center">Implementing foundational support with culturally responsive practices</td><td align="center">Embedding Responsive Practices</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"Last year, I started teaching my lessons in Spanish and English... by the third quarter, all of my babies knew the letters of the alphabet, all of my babies knew the sounds."</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"We have a parent educator who is Hispanic... when we have our parent‐teacher meetings, we do it all together so that we fully understand on both ends what is being said."</td><td align="center">Communicating with caregivers</td><td align="center">Interacting with caregivers</td><td align="center">Facilitating collaboration</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"I FaceTime parents to walk them through lessons or whatever it is I'm going through with them."</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"I would say it's [PD] made me more aware of providing visuals and teaching the concept with words in their language so that they can understand the concept."</td><td align="center">Describing PD impact and changes</td><td align="center">Implementing PD learning</td><td align="center">Implementing PD learning</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">"I think PD at the start of the school year would have helped us align better strategies for multilingual learners."</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Alice</td><td align="center">"I'm interested in learning more ways to reach ML students and to build a bridge to caregivers to get them involved"</td><td align="center">Collaborating with caregivers</td><td align="center">Implementing home/school connections</td><td align="center">Impacting caregivers and the community through implementation</td><td align="center">Fostering Caregiver and Community Implementation</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Judy</td><td align="center">Alan shared ideas from the course with a community of Swahili speakers, leading them to create their own program. [Caregiver course research journal]</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0193225972-17">Findings</hd> <p>The findings are presented in a narrative format and supported with quantitative and qualitative data, illustrative vignettes, and multimodal artifacts. Drawing on the metaphor of growth within an educational ecology, we present two distinct yet connected cases, Alice and Judy, each a participant in the same multilingual literacy PD but experiencing it in different ways. Alice represents a typical case, who shifted gradually in awareness and externalized responsibility. Judy reflects a theoretically rich case, in which CSP principles took root more fully and branched outward into caregiver partnerships and broader community engagement. Although each case is unique in context and trajectory, together they illuminate how individual growth can contribute to the cross‐pollination of knowledge, practice, and advocacy within a culturally sustaining educational ecosystem. We first provide a description of Alice and Judy's individual stories as educators in the PD program and demographic information about the related caregivers on the basis of their self‐reported survey responses. We then present findings from each case, concluding with cross‐case analysis for each domain that resulted from analysis: knowledge, self‐efficacy, and implementation, linking back to both research questions. These three domains directly reflect the focus of our research questions with the first two aligned to understanding teacher learning (RQ1) and the third examining how that learning shaped pedagogical practice and interactions with ML students and caregivers (RQ2).</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-18">Alice's Background and Experiences</hd> <p>Alice described herself as a Black woman who "knows a little Spanish." Her elementary school served students in 4‐year‐old kindergarten to fifth grade and provided instruction in English only. At the end of the PD program, she had been teaching 4‐year‐old kindergarten at the same school for 9 years. Across the PD, Alice emphasized the importance of equitable language use, including translators and translation of materials. Alice often described the need for information to be translated into students' home language to support them and their caregivers.</p> <p>Although Alice stayed committed to providing information in her students' and caregivers' home language(s) throughout the PD, her responses typically framed this as a largely external issue. That is, across the PD she repeatedly emphasized external solutions for supporting MLs and their caregivers such as "hiring more translators" and purchasing multilingual resources. In the exit interview after concluding the PD, she described how to support her MLs in the classroom stating, "So in our room we have to have things labeled, but it's all in English. <emph>It would be nice to go ahead and label it in their home language too</emph>, just like there's resources for the children of stuff around the room, like color charts and shapes and whatnot. Having it dual, having maybe little resource charts for them with stuff in their language too so they can compare and contrast and feel valued as well." She went on to say, "And then we've already been doing this, <emph>but just trying to translate as much as possible for when it goes home</emph>. There is that gap of connection with the parents at home too, making sure they feel included and whatnot" (emphasis added). Interestingly, translated resources were a large focus of her conversations about supporting MLs, and yet after more than 2 years in PD, she had not yet placed multilingual labels around the classroom. However, she had begun translating materials for home as much as possible and understood the importance of including caregivers in this way. Across four teaching logs she reported that she did not communicate with caregivers and summarized this by answering a question about her interactions with caregivers in stating, "It's not much. It's mostly through our parent [communication] app." Promisingly, at the end of the PD, she recognized the importance of acknowledging students' cultures in the classroom.</p> <p>As shown in Table 4, Alice's classes consistently included MLs, with languages spoken beyond English, including Spanish, Korean, and Arabic. She referred two caregivers, Eliza and Kristen (see Table 2), whose participation further reflected a shift toward more inclusive, caregiver‐oriented practices.</p> <p>4 TABLE Alice's student demographics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Semester</th><th align="center">Number of survey responses</th><th align="center">Number of MLs</th><th align="center">Languages beyond English</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Spring 1</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">Korean, Spanish</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Fall 1</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">Spanish</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Spring 2</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">Spanish</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Fall 2</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">Spanish, Arabic</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0193225972-19">Judy's Background and Experiences</hd> <p>Judy described herself as a Black woman of Panamanian descent. Bilingual in Spanish and English, Judy used her linguistic resources to meet the diverse needs of her 5‐year‐old kindergarten students by providing instruction in both languages. In her life map she provided background information about growing up in Panama and then moving to the U.S. Judy was an instructional aide for 10 years prior to gaining her teaching credentials. She shared her desired impact on students' lives, stating, "I want to overcome the language barrier for my students so they can feel secure and loved. Students need to know that they are significant and have a voice." Teaching her students bilingually, in English and Spanish, was not required by her English‐medium school, but rather an approach she began to embrace during her first year in the PD. Judy was the only cohort teacher to take such an involved approach to supporting the linguistic diversity of her students.</p> <p>The first year of Judy's cohort participation was also her first year as a classroom teacher after 10 years of being an instructional aide at the same school. Judy was highly passionate about supporting caregivers, often going beyond mere communication to embracing their unique cultural and linguistic assets. Across the three interviews, she maintained focus on influencing the 'full circle' from students to teachers to caregivers. In her pre‐interview, Judy described her desire to support parents: "I want to be able to not only teach my students, my English language learner students in the classroom, but also their parents." Across the PD, Judy stood apart from other teachers because of her deeply reflective and supportive stance toward caregivers.</p> <p>Judy went above and beyond many times throughout the program to embrace her community and support students. She obtained free home WIFI for any student in need and shared a Google Classroom site with resources and kept up an X profile diary of classroom happenings to share with larger, school‐related audiences. A passionate advocate for the caregiver literacy course, she asked that the university offer this course widely to ML caregivers. In her pre‐interview, she described a grant she had written to support students with bilingual books. Judy saw her impact as a kindergarten teacher as lifelong. In her entry interview, she described her goals for the PD, saying "I would like to level the playing field for my students, so that they know that they're confident and they grow, and they can have more career choices and not only choose construction or agriculture." Construction and agriculture jobs were typically held by minoritized people in the area where Judy taught. Her honest desire to support her students in lifelong success, years beyond their time in her kindergarten classroom, demonstrated her dedication and ability to look at the ecosystems to support such growth.</p> <p>Judy's commitment to multilingual families extended beyond her classroom. She referred four caregivers, Alan, Cora, Nora, and Sara (see Table 2), to the literacy course, actively encouraging their participation and emphasizing its value. As shown in Table 5, her classroom consistently included a high number of MLs speaking Spanish, Quechua, and Swahili across semesters. Judy's advocacy reflected a broader vision of education as a collaborative, community‐centered effort.</p> <p>5 TABLE Judy's student demographics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Semester</th><th align="center">Number of survey responses</th><th align="center">Number of MLs</th><th align="center">Languages beyond English</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Spring 1</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">Spanish, Quechua</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Fall 1</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">Spanish, Swahili</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Spring 2</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">Spanish, Swahili</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Fall 2</td><td align="center">24</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">Spanish</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0193225972-20">Theories of Knowledge</hd> <p>In both cases, knowledge emerged as a central domain and construct, not only in what teachers reported learning through the PD but also in how they enacted, transformed, and shared that knowledge in their classrooms and communities. Knowledge, encompassing explicit concepts, tacit insights, theoretical principles, and practical applications, was reported on the teacher survey (see Figure 3) as well as in interviews with questions regarding best practices. In teacher surveys, 16 questions pertained to knowledge, with five responses ranging from "definitely false" to "definitely true." In some instances, knowledge was inferred on the basis of descriptions of experiences.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-fig-0003.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-fig-0003.jpg" title="3 Cohort teachers' average self‐reported knowledge rating." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193225972-22">Alice's Knowledge</hd> <p>Alice began the PD with an average self‐reported knowledge rate of 3.75 out of five (75%) across the 16 survey questions addressing knowledge. She responded to one survey item (<emph>I know how to for all writing assignments, provide language‐based supports to facilitate students' entry into, and continued development of, writing</emph>) with "probably false" as her lowest area of knowledge in the first survey. This was her lowest knowledge area response across the six surveys during the 2 years of PD. Alice's responses related to knowledge generally aligned with those of the cohort (see Figure 3). Overall, her average self‐reported knowledge rating rose during the second year of the PD and then fell slightly to 4 for the remainder of the program. Examining trends in Alice's qualitative data revealed how her reported knowledge shifted across the PD. Three theoretical codes emerged from iterative coding of her qualitative data related to this domain: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref69">1</reflink>) developing knowledge through practice and reflection, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref70">2</reflink>) applying knowledge to support student learning and development, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref71">3</reflink>) building knowledge through cultural and contextual awareness.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-23">Developing Knowledge Through Practice and Reflection</hd> <p>Developing knowledge through practice and reflection refers to building understanding over time through experience, self‐examination, and engagement with new ideas. As Alice matriculated through the program, she gained understanding and insight through experiences and reflecting on them in surveys, logs, and interviews. Alice began the program with very little PD experience in literacy or teaching MLs. Prior to the MEd in Literacy Alice recalled only one PD session on the multilingual program and could not recall any PD focused on literacy. She was often frustrated by the exclusion of students from supports such as an ML teacher as well as the lack of PD focused on early childhood, because the district viewed 4‐year‐old kindergarten differently than elementary school. In her initial interview, she described evidence‐based practice as utilizing an assessment to track students' letter recognition and having evidence that students had mastered that skill across the year. At the conclusion of the PD, she described evidence‐based practice as students being able to show their knowledge: "When they are able to demonstrate the concept, whether it be in English or in their own language, but just the fact that they're grasping the concept." She said she would use what she had learned across the PD in her teaching practice to be more aware in her "lesson planning, small group planning, and to just incorporate more of a student's home life into what we are doing." Alice said she met her goals of gaining a better understanding of her MLs and herself. She added she wanted to know how to help them. It is interesting to note that she felt she learned more about herself through the PD and potentially how to help herself, signifying reflection as a knowledge‐shifting factor.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-24">Applying Knowledge to Support Student Learning and Development</hd> <p>Intentionally using understanding, skills, and insights to positively impact student growth was another way that knowledge presented itself in Alice's data. In her pre‐interview, Alice desired a stronger knowledge base in teaching MLs, stating, "I struggle with MLs, especially with testing in ELA, their scores are lower, and I want more ways to help." At a mid‐point interview, she was asked to give advice for other teachers of MLs; she suggested to "make it interactive, not like a lecture." This statement demonstrated her knowledge of developmentally appropriate practices for young MLs. She went on to describe her use of an interactive whiteboard throughout the day, saying it supported students' learning: "with Pre‐K it's easier to use visuals and to incorporate the music and the movement with them. It just kind of helps them stick to the routine." However, when asked to describe the current support for MLs at her school, Alice mentioned that all MLs received "resource," which is a special education program. This response led the authors to infer an inconsistency in her understanding of the distinction between the ML program and a special‐education pull‐out classroom. Overall, Alice applied her knowledge to support student learning and development.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-25">Building Knowledge Through Cultural and Contextual Awareness</hd> <p>Building knowledge through cultural and contextual awareness refers to developing understanding by recognizing and valuing the cultural backgrounds, lived experiences, and contexts that shape individuals' perspectives and learning. In line with CSP, this understanding and knowledge building is an essential part of developing and sustaining pedagogical practices. Across the data regarding Alice's knowledge, the code‐building knowledge through cultural and contextual awareness emerged. When Alice began the PD, four out of 14 of her students were MLs. In the following year, only two students were MLs, and both spoke Spanish. The following year, according to student surveys, five out of 20 students were MLs. During that school year, at the mid‐point interview, Alice recalled only three students who were MLs and could not name their languages or countries of origin. This lack of awareness seemed to demonstrate a need to build more cultural and contextual awareness as a basis for knowledge construction. Alice recognized the importance of learning students' diverse backgrounds at the completion of the PD. She stated, "I've learned that it is important because it's who they are, and we have to start with acknowledging them and their world before we can introduce them into something new."</p> <p>As previously mentioned, Alice was keenly aware of the potential benefits of translation. Her knowledge of this need and awareness of students' linguistic and cultural diversity are somewhat at odds as she had trouble recalling which languages students spoke. Memos continuously noted the tension of supporting students beyond translation toward comprehensible input, a concept covered extensively throughout the PD.</p> <p>At the conclusion of the PD, Alice successfully passed the required exam for certification in ESOL. She also rated all knowledge items as "probably true (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref72">4</reflink>)," which was slightly lower than the cohort average of 4.67. Interestingly, at the conclusion of the school year, when she had two Spanish‐speaking MLs, she ranked her knowledge highest as "definitely true (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref73">5</reflink>)" across all areas. The following school year saw a slight decrease in her knowledge to "probably true," potentially because of the increase in ML students to five and her ongoing practice and reflection through the experience of teaching MLs.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-26">Judy's Knowledge</hd> <p>Judy's self‐reported knowledge average at the beginning of the PD was significantly lower than that of the cohort at 1.13. On the five‐point scale, she rated her knowledge as "definitely false" (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref74">1</reflink>) on 15 of 16 items with the only exception being "neither true nor false" (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref75">3</reflink>) on the item "I know how to strategically use instructional tools—such as short videos, visuals, and graphic organizers—to anchor instruction and help students make sense of content." On the second survey, her average knowledge score rose to 3.81. She marked all items as "probably true" with the exception of "neither true nor false" for two items: "I know how to provide writing assignments that are anchored in content and focused on developing academic language as well as writing skills;" and "I know how to provide additional instruction in small groups consisting of three to five students to students struggling with language and literacy." Low writing and small‐group instruction were common trends for the cohort in the first two surveys. From the third survey on, she marked "definitely true" (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref76">5</reflink>) for all knowledge items, rising above the cohort averages on the four final surveys.</p> <p>Examining trends in Judy's qualitative data revealed how her reported knowledge shifted across the PD. Three theoretical codes emerged from iterative coding of her qualitative data related to this domain: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref77">1</reflink>) using knowledge as a bridge to equity, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref78">2</reflink>) adapting and growing knowledge through practice, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref79">3</reflink>) building knowledge ecosystems to empower communities.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-27">Using Knowledge as a Bridge to Equity</hd> <p>Judy routinely used her knowledge of MLs as a bridge to more equitable educational outcomes. For example, in her initial interview, she said she wanted to gain knowledge that would support students beyond her kindergarten classroom, as described above. In her exit interview, she described her knowledge growth in relation to the PD. "It has been very, very important for me to not only learn how to meet the student's needs, but incorporate things like WIDA [language assessment and descriptors] to make sure that my students are achieving their best academic outcome in this classroom. Before that, it was very, very hard for me to ask and get help from other teachers in this classroom because I am the only bilingual teacher." Her knowledge from the PD allowed her to utilize resources to support MLs. Additionally, she took her knowledge beyond her classroom to educate teachers and administrators in her building. She shared valuable learning about cognates, "when I started talking about cognates, they were shocked. They were surprised. They were like, 'Why is that in your lesson?' I was like, 'Yeah. There are words that are in Spanish and English and there's similar spelling and there's similar pronunciation, and you can put that and the students will tie in because it allows the students to bring in their background knowledge and prior knowledge and share in the classroom.' And they were surprised because they were not aware of that." Judy's statement evidenced a commitment to CSP that started with knowledge‐building about her MLs and instructional practices that would support them.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-28">Adapting and Growing Knowledge Through Practice</hd> <p>Judy's knowledge evolved throughout the PD as she actively applied her learning in the classroom. In initial interviews, she acknowledged having no prior PD in Literacy or ML teaching. However, Judy demonstrated a strong commitment to implementing new strategies and reflecting on their impact. For example, she described a challenging experience in which she initially received a low score on one of her administrative evaluation criteria. Rather than accepting this outcome, she initiated a conversation with the administrator, explaining her intentional use of wait time to support MLs and providing data to demonstrate its effectiveness. After learning how Judy's practice was grounded in research, the administrator revisited the evaluation and revised her score. Judy reflected, "They were so surprised that they went back and gave me a four because they did not understand before that wait time was very important."</p> <p>Beyond advocating for her instructional decisions, Judy also described how she worked with her growing knowledge to support students' literacy development. She constructed whisper phones to help students hear themselves read aloud, incorporated visuals during small group instruction to reinforce vocabulary, and tracked student progress on literacy goals. Through these actions, Judy's growing knowledge translated into concrete tools and strategies that directly enhanced her students' learning experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-29">Building Knowledge Ecosystems to Empower Communities</hd> <p>Judy often went beyond the boundaries of her individual classroom to empower her broader community. She leveraged her knowledge to support colleagues by leading PD and sharing insights from courses. Recognizing the needs of Spanish‐speaking students, she invited teachers to "send them down" to her classroom, where she could assess their understanding in Spanish. Judy explained, "Most of the time it's just the student didn't understand, or they needed more support." Her collaborative approach also emphasized the importance of engaging caregivers as partners in student success. From the beginning, this was a central goal for her. In her entry interview, she described a vision for creating a cycle of shared knowledge and support: "I would like to offer more help to parents... Because with so many different cultures and educational experience, everybody does not understand how our system works and what they can do to help their kids." This example demonstrates her deep understanding of collaboration—bridging teachers, students, and caregivers—to build a knowledge ecosystem where all stakeholders develop and share culturally sustaining resources to support student learning.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-30">Synthesis: Theories of Knowledge Across Cases</hd> <p>Across the two cases, a developmental continuum emerged to describe how teachers' knowledge about supporting MLs in culturally sustaining ways shifted and expanded through participation in the PD (see Figure 4). This continuum traces growth from internal development to outward application and community impact. The cross‐case analysis revealed four theoretical dimensions: developing, applying, adapting, and extending knowledge. These patterns reflect teachers' shifting understandings of practice, equity, and their own roles within multilingual ecosystems. In the sections that follow, we examine how these dimensions of knowledge unfolded across both cases.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-fig-0004.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-fig-0004.jpg" title="4 Continuum of knowledge development." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193225972-32">Developing Knowledge</hd> <p>This stage reflects teachers' initial growth through reflection and engagement with new ideas and underscores the importance of reflective learning, both about MLs and instructional practices to support them, to engage in CSP. Both Alice and Judy began the PD with limited formal training in literacy or multilingual education. For Alice, this development was characterized by learning through reflection on practice and increasing her awareness of her ML students' diverse experiences. Judy, though starting with low self‐reported knowledge, quickly began incorporating resources and frameworks introduced during PD (e.g., Colorín Colorado, WIDA), establishing a foundation for future action.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-33">Applying Knowledge</hd> <p>Application emerged as teachers began integrating strategies and tools into their classrooms to directly support MLs. Alice described using visuals, movement, and an interactive whiteboard to enhance routine instruction. Judy applied her knowledge by using whisper phones, visuals, and cognates in lessons, reflecting deeper conceptual understanding and growing confidence in instructional choices.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-34">Adapting Knowledge</hd> <p>Adapting reflects the ability to revise and expand knowledge on the basis of classroom realities. Judy showed this most clearly as she defended research‐based practices during evaluations and adjusted instruction using student data. Alice also demonstrated this shift in later reflections on evidence‐based practices, moving from assessment tracking to a more holistic understanding of students' demonstrations of knowledge, even in their home language. This stage suggests movement toward more culturally sustaining practices, as teachers began to adapt knowledge to more directly incorporate students' full linguistic repertoires.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-35">Extending Knowledge</hd> <p>This phase represents knowledge expansion beyond the classroom into leadership and community engagement. Judy exemplified this extension by leading PD, supporting caregivers, and facilitating classroom collaborations. Alice, too, expressed interest in bridging classroom learning with caregivers and communities, although her efforts remained classroom‐centered. Judy's practices represented a shift toward building culturally sustaining knowledge ecosystems that leveraged PD to empower students, colleagues, and families.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-36">Theories of Self‐Efficacy</hd> <p>Across both cases, self‐efficacy, confidence, or belief in oneself (Gee [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref80">19</reflink>]) was another domain of interest in this study and emerged not as a static trait but as a dynamic, evolving construct shaped through practice, reflection, and connection to community. Teachers responded to 16 prompts pertaining to self‐efficacy with a five‐point scale and ratings of <emph>no confidence, very little confidence, some confidence, much confidence</emph>, and <emph>complete confidence</emph>. Self‐efficacy averages rose steadily for the cohort from 3.5 to 4.4 across the six semesters of PD (see Figure 5). Although Alice began with relatively higher self‐reported confidence and Judy with very low ratings, both teachers experienced meaningful growth over the course of the PD along different trajectories. Self‐efficacy was also seen across qualitative data sources, in teachers' interview responses, student survey responses on confidence, and caregiver self‐efficacy reporting on their own abilities as well as their ML students'.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-fig-0005.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-fig-0005.jpg" title="5 Cohort teachers' average self‐efficacy scores." /> </p> <p></p> <p>For Alice, self‐efficacy was most often described in relation to resources and structured strategies; she strengthened her confidence by applying tools and frameworks introduced in the PD. At the same time, she navigated her confidence through reflective practices, acknowledging challenges, identifying gaps, and articulating a clearer sense of her role in supporting MLs. Conversely, Judy recognized her own transformational growth as she expanded her pedagogical toolkit and continually revisited her practice with greater purpose and insight. Her confidence was reflected through knowing what to do, why she was doing it, and who it was for. This ultimately led her to extend her self‐efficacy beyond the classroom, using her learning to engage caregivers, lead colleagues, and build stronger educational partnerships.</p> <p>Together, these cases demonstrate that self‐efficacy is cultivated through layered relational processes, emerging from moments of trial, reflection, affirmation, and action. When teachers are equipped with knowledge and the agency to act on that knowledge, their confidence grows in ways that impact circles beyond their own, enriching the full ecosystem of teaching and learning.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-38">Alice's Self‐Efficacy</hd> <p>Alice's self‐efficacy began higher than the group at a 4 or "much confidence" in the initial survey. Two prompts elicited scores of three or "some confidence," "For all writing assignments, provide language‐based supports to facilitate students' entry into, and continued development of, writing;" and "For students who struggle with basic foundational reading skills, spend time not only on these skills but also on vocabulary development and listening and reading comprehension strategies." Writing was noted as a general area of need for all teachers across the initial survey analysis. Examining trends in Alice's qualitative data revealed how her reported self‐efficacy shifted across the PD. Two theoretical codes emerged from iterative coding of her qualitative data related to this domain: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref81">1</reflink>) navigating confidence through reflection, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref82">2</reflink>) strengthening confidence with strategies and resources.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-39">Navigating Confidence Through Reflection</hd> <p>Navigating confidence through reflection refers to building self‐efficacy by analyzing experiences and identifying successes and challenges. In post‐interviews, teachers were asked to describe a needed PD for their setting. As a follow‐up question, we asked if they felt capable of leading this PD. Alice desired "more professional development that reflects working with MLs on pre‐K level" and responded to the follow‐up question about whether she felt confident in leading such PD; she said, "maybe. I'm not really sure." When she started the PD, she rated her confidence as a "three or four" out of 10 in teaching MLs. At the conclusion of the PD, she ranked her confidence as "eight or nine" out of 10. She explained the increase by stating, "through course readings and experiences and now better understanding."</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-40">Strengthening Confidence With Strategies and Resources</hd> <p>For Alice, confidence was also about implementing tools, techniques, and supports to address challenges. As discussed, Alice valued translation resources and frequently advocated for their use. Memos revealed a similar trend of desiring resources and strategies to strengthen confidence with the comment "all about resources." When asked about how the PD impacted her confidence on teaching MLs, she responded that the PD program was helpful in "Providing me with more resources and giving me new perspective on how to better... How to better utilize strategies that I already have, but to aim it to where it is more understandable to MLs."</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-41">Judy's Self‐Efficacy</hd> <p>Like her beginning knowledge scores, Judy ranked her confidence as low in the first teacher survey. She reported "no confidence at all" (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref83">1</reflink>) across the battery of 16 questions in the first survey, and "some" (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref84">3</reflink>) on the second survey. From the third survey on, she reported "complete confidence" (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref85">5</reflink>) on all items, outperforming the cohort on four of six surveys. Across the data, three theoretical codes emerged from Judy's self‐efficacy data: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref86">1</reflink>) building confidence through application of knowledge, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref87">2</reflink>) recognizing growth and revisiting practices, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref88">3</reflink>) supporting self‐efficacy through community and resource integration.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-42">Building Confidence Through Application of Knowledge</hd> <p>As Judy's knowledge expanded, so did her confidence. Judy had many practical examples and often shared them in interviews with the research team. At the beginning of the PD, she quantified her confidence in teaching MLs as seven out of 10 and described the challenges her students faced with typical kindergarten curricula. She mentioned using alphabet cards, and the frustration brought with attempting to translate concepts like rhyming words. She reflected, "Unfortunately, Pam the lamb does not translate to the same in Spanish." She later worked with her administrators to stray from the monolingual curriculum by applying her knowledge of CSP and found success in using visuals that provided better support for her students. In her exit interview, she rated her confidence as 9.5 because "there's always something new under the sun that we can learn." She then described her ability to apply her learning as improving her confidence, "So now I feel more confident. I don't have to seek outside help. I know how to assess my students, use this data to meet my students at their level. I'm able to use the research to support, for example, why I am incorporating wait time for my multilingual learners."</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-43">Recognizing Growth and Revisiting Practices</hd> <p>Judy actively reflected on her experiences and used her insights to advocate for both her professional growth and her students' needs. Interviews became a space for her to reflect upon her growth and practices. In her initial interview, she expressed a desire for greater confidence in supporting her ML students but noted limited access to resources: "I need more resources to help my students learn and grow, and unfortunately I don't have much access to that." Over time, Judy's participation in PD contributed to significant growth in her teaching practice and confidence. Reflecting on her progress, she shared: "This year my students are speaking up, my Spanish speakers are picking up English faster than my other class, but I think it's not that they're better. I think it's just I'm getting better at what I'm doing because now I'm using all these tools and all the strategies and everything is coming back full circle. So yeah, this is amazing." Her enthusiastic statement, "this is amazing," demonstrates how she recognized her evolving skills and the impact of applying tools and strategies learned in PD. Judy's reflections were further reinforced in her life map, where she noted the significance of her participation in the PD: "This master's program provides me with tools to help me meet the needs of my students." Through this process, Judy not only acknowledged her growth but also demonstrated a commitment to continually revising her practices to better support her ML students.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-44">Supporting Self‐Efficacy Through Community and Resource Integration</hd> <p>Judy's confidence strengthened as she supported her community by integrating resources and technology. In her mid‐point interview, she described using technology to engage caregivers in their children's literacy learning, positioning digital tools as relational bridges between home and school. Much like her approach to integrating content and strategy knowledge, Judy used technology as a bridge to connect caregivers to classroom practices. Through this process, she gained confidence not only in working with families but also with her peers. Judy encouraged other teachers to "involve the parents," and emphasized the importance of providing context when sharing resources: "When I share resources with my parents, I let them know what I'm sharing, why I am sharing that, and how is it important for them, for the child, to use these tools at home." Judy's intentional approach highlights how CSP practices such as integrating resources and engaging caregivers can foster stronger learning communities while enhancing a teacher's own sense of self‐efficacy.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-45">Synthesis: Theories of Self‐Efficacy Across Cases</hd> <p>Self‐efficacy, or confidence in the capacity to support MLs, emerged as a relational and evolving construct, nurtured through opportunities for practice, reflection, and connection. Although Alice began the PD with moderate to high confidence and Judy with low self‐efficacy, both experienced transformational growth through distinct pathways. These shifts were observed in self‐reported surveys, but also in interviews, student and caregiver surveys. We identified four cross‐case theoretical codes (see Figure 6): (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref89">1</reflink>) reflecting on current practices, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref90">2</reflink>) strengthening confidence through application of strategies and resources, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref91">3</reflink>) recognizing transformational growth, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref92">4</reflink>) extending self‐efficacy through community integration that provide a continuum for understanding this domain.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-fig-0006.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-fig-0006.jpg" title="6 Continuum of self‐efficacy." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193225972-47">Reflecting on Current Practice</hd> <p>Both teachers began by naming their uncertainties and acknowledging their limits. Alice spoke openly about struggling to support MLs beyond Spanish and voiced hesitations around leading PD. This humility became a foundation for growth. For Judy, reflection revealed the mismatch between her students' needs and the support she could offer at the start of the PD. These early reflections helped each teacher identify where their confidence was grounded and needed to be cultivated.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-48">Strengthening Confidence Through Application of Strategies and Resources</hd> <p>As both teachers progressed through the PD, engaging with new tools and pedagogical strategies, their confidence increased. Alice described the importance of translation tools, visuals, and kinesthetic supports. She attributed her rising confidence to having access to concrete resources she could implement. Similarly, Judy emphasized the use of data, visuals, and scaffolded strategies that directly helped meet her students' language and literacy goals.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-49">Recognizing Transformational Growth</hd> <p>This phase captures how both teachers acknowledged their evolving roles and growing capacities over time. Alice reflected on her growth by moving from a three or four out of 10 confidence rating in her ability to teach MLs to an eight or nine by the end of the PD. Judy's language was explicit: she described a full‐circle moment where her strategies, confidence, and outcomes aligned, stating "I'm using all these tools... everything is going to come back full circle." The recognition of growth was a crucial turning point in both cases and marked a shift in how they saw themselves as educators of MLs.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-50">Extending Self‐Efficacy Through Community Integration</hd> <p>The final phase, evident only in Judy's case, represents a shift from individual confidence to collective empowerment. Judy leveraged her self‐efficacy to support her students, fellow educators, and caregivers. She used technology to connect with caregivers, explained instructional strategies in accessible ways, and advocated for broader inclusion of families in the learning process. Although Alice expressed interest in building stronger home‐school connections, her practice had not yet fully extended into this practice by the end of the PD. Existing work has not focused on how communal relationships and sustained social interaction contribute to the development of teacher self‐efficacy (Bandura [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref93">5</reflink>]; Moradi et al. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref94">32</reflink>]). Our findings extend this scholarship by showing how self‐efficacy can emerge relationally through culturally sustaining, community‐oriented practices, where engagement with caregivers and colleagues becomes a mechanism through which teachers' confidence and professional agency are expanded.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-51">Theories of Implementation</hd> <p>The third domain of interest in this study was implementation, or putting theory, knowledge, and experiences into practice, shaped by each participant's evolving understanding of their students, families, and communities. Although implementation began with a focus on generalized classroom and home literacy practices, it deepened over time into more individualized, equitable, and community‐anchored actions that approached fuller enactment of CSP.</p> <p>Both Alice and Judy began by recognizing the needs of MLs, often identifying gaps in their own practice or in systemic support. For Alice, this recognition was often externally focused, naming translation tools or school personnel as critical needs. At the same time, Judy regularly paired needs‐recognition with advocacy, identifying how curriculum or communication practices could better serve MLs and their caregivers.</p> <p>In surveys (see Figure 7), teachers were asked a battery of 16 questions regarding how often they implemented specific teaching practices in a typical teaching week. Participants responded on an 11‐point implementation scale from 0% to 100%, increasing in 10% increments. Questions contained a mix of evidence‐based language and literacy practices such as "choose a small set of academic vocabulary for in‐depth instruction." The cohort averages for this domain are interesting, as it was the only area in which teachers reported a decline in the use of specific practices. Across the first three surveys, focus areas included using informational texts to teach vocabulary and writing. Alice's responses to implementation questions were highly varied across the first five of six surveys. Her first survey responses ranged from 30% to 90%. She implemented small‐group instruction (30%), facilitated writing development (40%), and used informational texts to teach vocabulary less frequently. For half of the questions, she indicated 90% implementation. Following trends of other domains across surveys, Judy's implementation responses were stagnant. She indicated between 30% and 50% implementation for the first survey and 90% on all items in the five remaining surveys.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-fig-0007.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-fig-0007.jpg" title="7 Mean self‐reported implementation (% frequency)." /> </p> <p></p> <p>For this domain, caregiver data are interwoven with teacher data because implementation was conceptualized as a collaborative and community‐anchored process. Caregiver responses provided insight into how the PD was translated into home‐school partnerships, highlighting reciprocal shifts in practice, communication, and confidence. Including caregiver data alongside teacher implementation data allows for a fuller picture of how CSP was enacted and sustained across learning ecologies.</p> <p>Data from teacher interviews, student surveys, caregiver surveys, and memos also revealed how learning from the PD was implemented. Together, these cases demonstrate that implementation is a recursive, evolving practice of putting strategies into practice. When teachers are supported in noticing, responding, and extending their practices in culturally grounded ways, implementation becomes a vehicle for equity and collective growth.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-53">Alice's Implementation</hd> <p>Alice's implementation journey began with generalized strategies and supports. In her early reflections captured through interviews, teaching logs, and teacher surveys, she emphasized using visuals, repetition, and technology for scheduling and classroom routines. Five theoretical codes emerged from Alice's data: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref95">1</reflink>) delivering individualized support, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref96">2</reflink>) providing equitable support, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref97">3</reflink>) implementing foundational support with culturally responsive practices, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref98">4</reflink>) facilitating collaboration, and (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref99">5</reflink>) implementing PD learning.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-54">Delivering Individualized Support</hd> <p>The first code that emerged across the data regarding implementation was <emph>delivering individualized support</emph> or prioritizing support related to tailored strategies or interventions to meet individual student needs. This code emerged across student surveys, teacher surveys, logs, and interviews. In surveys, students responded to an open‐response question regarding how the teacher helped students when they struggled with learning.</p> <p>Students mentioned that teachers provided small‐group and individualized support. Alice's students responded to the open‐response question, which asked how the teacher helped when the student struggled. Individual students responded with the following on the second student survey: sounding out words, conversations, flashcards, highlighting areas of work, repetition, visuals, breaking apart words, redirection, chunking, working on language skills, and visual images. Most commonly, she used repetition to support students. Across the data, Alice implemented individualized supports to help students when they struggled with learning. This might be seen as an initial step toward CSP, recognizing the need for pedagogy tailored to student needs, but not yet focused on practices that are specifically culturally sustaining.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-55">Providing Equitable Support</hd> <p>Equitable support ensured that all students had access to the resources and support needed to succeed, focusing on equity and often using technology to accommodate unique needs. In a mid‐point interview, Alice revealed that she used technology frequently, but not to support individual students. She said, "Most of our technology is used just to like a schedule, how we go throughout the day." Alice described her technology use with MLs as purposeful, "I use technology with MLs to provide them with more visuals and kinesthetic movement." These responses are seen as equitable because they go beyond generalized or individualized help to address students' unique cultural and linguistic needs. By leveraging technology, Alice created opportunities for MLs to engage meaningfully with content, build self‐awareness of their progress, and foster connections between their bodies and minds. This approach exemplifies a commitment to responsive teaching and highlights how equitable support empowers students to succeed academically and socially.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-56">Implementing Foundational Support With Culturally Responsive Practices</hd> <p>Foundational support for language and literacy emerged as a key theory across implementation codes. This code was defined as the application of evidence‐based methods or strategies in the classroom to improve learning outcomes, often within a culturally situated framework. At her mid‐point interview, Alice described how she supported her ML student in learning the letters in her name, a foundational early literacy skill. She explained, "So with her [ML student] we've been working on her name, getting her to identify the letters in her name... And that she focuses on just learning those letters and letter sounds."</p> <p>As noted above, caregiver data are interwoven with teacher data in this domain to reflect implementation as a shared, community‐anchored process. Kristen, a ML caregiver participant in the caregiver course recommended by Alice, was a Filipino‐speaking mother of two children: one enrolled in Alice's K4 classroom and one in middle school. In her caregiver survey, she responded to an open‐ended prompt asking for suggestions for future caregiver course sessions. In the first session, she requested "more sample of fun activity that involves learning," signaling a desire for academically oriented, engaging practices that she could apply at home. By the final session, however, her response expanded to include a request for guidance on "how to deal with teenage dilemma when they encounter bad influences at school." Although this second response may initially seem disconnected from the 4‐year‐old classroom context, it reflects a holistic, family‐centered view of learning and development. Kristen's input suggests that culturally responsive foundational practices are not limited to discrete academic strategies but are embedded in broader familial, cultural, and developmental contexts. Her perspective highlights how culturally responsive engagement must consider the whole family unit, attending to their immediate educational needs as well as their broader social and emotional well‐being. In this way, Kristen's contributions reflect the principle of implementing foundational support through culturally responsive practices, leveraging family priorities, cultural values, and lived experience to create meaningful and sustainable educational experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-57">Facilitating Collaboration</hd> <p>In their implementation, teachers facilitated collaboration, cooperation, and shared learning among educators, families, or communities to address challenges collectively. Alice collaborated closely with school support faculty to ensure effective communication with caregivers. She reflected in post‐interviews, "We have a parent educator who is Hispanic... when we have our parent‐teacher meetings, we do it all together so that we fully understand on both ends what is being said." Alice also discussed the impact of the PD on her approach to working with ML caregivers: "it [PD] did make me more aware about my communication with them [ML caregivers]." By involving school support faculty as partners to address students' linguistic and cultural needs through caregivers, Alice demonstrated how collaboration can enhance educational outcomes for MLs and strengthen home‐school connections.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-58">Implementing PD Learning</hd> <p>Implementing PD learning refers to the ways teachers engage with PD content and translate it into instructional shifts or broader systemic reflection. Teachers described how the PD influenced their thinking and practice. Alice noted increased awareness of language accessibility, explaining, "I would say it's [PD] made me more aware of providing visuals and teaching the concept with words in their language so that they can understand the concept." This shift reflects her growing attention to linguistic inclusion, even when the implementation of CSP was still in progress.</p> <p>In caregiver pre‐ and post‐surveys, both Kristen and Eliza, caregivers recommended by Alice, grew in their confidence implementing evidence‐based strategies with their MLs. Both caregivers responded to 17 questions about their confidence in accomplishing tasks to support their ML student. Eliza's confidence increased from "some" or "much confidence" to "much" or "complete confidence" on 13 responses, and her confidence decreased on four items from "complete confidence" to "much confidence." The four items with decreased confidence were: "Access instructional tools—such as short videos, visuals, and graphic organizers—to help students make sense of content," "Engage daily opportunities for students to talk about academic content," "How confident do you feel in your understanding of how to communicate with school personnel?", "How confident do you feel in your understanding of community resources available to you?" These prompts required confidence in tasks requiring application rather than awareness, or how to implement strategies, navigate systems, or engage in discussion with the student as well as school/community stakeholders outside of the classroom teacher. The drop in confidence may reflect a more nuanced understanding of the complexities involved in applying PD learning in real‐life contexts. These slight decreases in confidence should not necessarily be seen as regressions. Instead, they likely reflect a recalibration of perception. As Eliza became more informed about expectations and strategies, she adjusted her confidence to reflect her nuanced, deeper understanding.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-59">Judy's Implementation</hd> <p>Judy brought her advocacy orientation and bilingual abilities into every layer of her instruction. From the earliest days of the PD, Judy voiced a desire for better alignment between curriculum expectations and the needs of MLs, often describing specific strategies she had already put into practice. In contrast to Alice's externally focused reflections on support systems, Judy consistently grounded her implementation in responsiveness to students and families, blending practical instructional strategies with attention to equity and access. Her post‐interview reflections and teacher logs revealed a growing commitment to translating PD learning into both classroom and community‐level action. Across Judy's data, six themes emerged: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref100">1</reflink>) delivering individualized support, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref101">2</reflink>) providing equitable support, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref102">3</reflink>) implementing foundational support with culturally responsive practices, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref103">4</reflink>) facilitating collaboration, (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref104">5</reflink>) implementing PD learning, and (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref105">6</reflink>) impacting caregivers and community through implementation.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-60">Delivering Individualized Support</hd> <p>Judy's approach to implementation began with her commitment to meeting students where they were academically and socially. According to student surveys, one of Judy's students struggled with feeling overwhelmed during the school day and described her individualized help in using breathing techniques to manage anxiety. Judy also discussed using data to inform her instruction and provide individualized support for students. In her post‐interview, she described her process for providing this support, stating, "I use where they're at in their data, what they're struggling with to mix my groups so they can get that extra support." These examples suggest that Judy's instructional decisions were grounded in a deep awareness of student needs, positioning individualized support as both relational and data‐informed.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-61">Providing Equitable Support</hd> <p>Judy's commitment to equity was reflected in how she leveraged tools and routines to make literacy learning accessible to all students and families. She said she used audio recordings of students reading books for their own reflection and their ML caregivers. She stated, "I also use technology for the students to record themselves, so they can hear themselves and their parents can hear them." In her teaching log, Judy planned to use generalized supports for literacy following a lesson on sight words. She said, "In the future, I will use the word wall to help listen to words, dictation and editing."</p> <p>Caregiver data further affirmed Judy's reach. Nora, a Spanish‐speaking caregiver of a K5 student in Judy's class and a middle schooler, adapted a strategy from the caregiver course that involved using puppets and storytelling to foster literacy engagement. Nora shared that she used her son's favorite toys and specific voices to illustrate a story, enhancing storytelling and prompting engagement. Eventually, her son began using the toys himself, inventing stories and assigning different voices to characters, mirroring his mother's modeled practice.</p> <p>These actions, although varied in delivery, demonstrated Judy's desire to extend access and ensure that tools like recordings, visual supports, and play‐based strategies reached across classroom and home contexts.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-62">Implementing Foundational Support With Culturally Responsive Practices</hd> <p>Foundational language and literacy instruction became a culturally sustaining practice in Judy's classroom through her intentional use of bilingual instruction. Judy worked diligently to provide targeted instruction for MLs, leveraging her bilingual abilities to teach in both Spanish and English. Reflecting on the impact of this approach in post‐interviews, Judy shared, "Last year, I started teaching my lessons in Spanish and English... by third quarter, all of my babies [students] knew the letters of the alphabet, all of my babies knew the sounds." This dual‐language instruction supported both students' early literacy development and honored their home languages and identities, exemplifying the kinds of culturally responsive foundational practices emphasized in the PD.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-63">Facilitating Collaboration</hd> <p>Judy's implementation was marked by a sustained effort to build bridges between school and home through creative and consistent collaboration. In surveys, students were asked if their caregivers received any resources from the school. Judy's students described a variety of resources, including needs‐based supports such as food, clothing, and holiday support, as well as differentiated homework support, newsletters, and the Google Classroom with bilingual resources created by Judy. These efforts demonstrated Judy's commitment to bridging school and home to support MLs. In addition to creating a Google Classroom to support caregivers, Judy used innovative methods to facilitate collaboration. She video‐called her families to engage them in student learning, sharing, "I FaceTime parents to walk them through lessons or whatever it is I'm going through with them." Through these actions, Judy positioned caregivers as active partners in learning and strengthened essential, relational ties between home and school.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-64">Implementing PD Learning</hd> <p>Judy's reflections reveal a shift from applying isolated strategies to viewing PD as a leveler for systemic information. She said, "I think PD at the start of the school year would have helped us align better strategies for MLs," signaling her recognition of PD not just as individual teacher growth, but as a tool for schoolwide alignment and change. By connecting her learning to schoolwide timing and systems, Judy demonstrated how PD participation can cultivate new strategies and critical insights into when and how institutional support structures should evolve.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-65">Impacting Caregivers and Community Through Implementation</hd> <p>At its strongest points, Judy's implementation extended beyond her classroom to reach families and communities in transformative ways. This code reflects the outward extension of PD learning, when teachers' implementation began to influence not only classroom practice but also the families and communities they serve. One caregiver she recommended, Alan, shared knowledge gained from the literacy course with a community of Swahili speakers. This ripple effect resulted in the creation of a grassroots literacy program, exemplifying how sustained, relational implementation can extend far beyond a single classroom. Together, these data illustrate how CSP, when implemented with intention, can generate both instructional shifts and community transformation. Judy's actions demonstrate the power of culturally grounded pedagogy to create enduring change.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-66">Synthesis: Theories of Implementation Across Cases</hd> <p>As their knowledge and confidence grew, both teachers moved toward delivering more intentional and individualized support. They used student data, small group work, and multimodal strategies to scaffold learning. Judy's use of bilingual instruction and culturally responsive tools like whisper phones and visuals demonstrated an adaptive and embedded approach. Alice's implementation reflected her increased awareness of strategies like dual‐language labeling and visual supports, though often described in terms of future planning rather than current classroom practice. Across both cases, implementation unfolded through three interrelated stages: acknowledging needs, embedding responsive practice, and fostering community implementation (see Figure 8). These strategies provide a map of how teachers moved from initial insight into student needs to broader instructional and community engagement.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-fig-0008.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-fig-0008.jpg" title="8 Continuum of implementation." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193225972-68">Acknowledging Needs</hd> <p>Implementation began when teachers recognized the importance of understanding and addressing the distinct needs of the MLs. For both Alice and Judy, this involved a shift from general instructional strategies to more attuned, individualized supports. Across student and teacher data, we see how this recognition catalyzed targeted efforts such as small‐group instruction, visuals, repetition, and the use of technology to scaffold learning. These approaches were shaped in response to the relational dynamics within each classroom. Judy's data‐driven grouping and calming techniques and Alice's scaffolded support using repetition and visuals demonstrate how implementation was grounded in teacher attentiveness to students' lived experiences. Importantly, this phase also marks the emergence of equity‐oriented thinking, a critical shift in CSP. Teachers began to move beyond offering support to all toward recognizing how different learners require differentiated strategies to access content meaningfully. In acknowledging these needs, teachers laid the groundwork for more responsive and culturally sustaining implementation.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-69">Embedding Responsive Practice</hd> <p>As teachers deepened their engagement with the PD, they began to embed responsive practices more intentionally and holistically. This stage reflected a shift from recognition to action, as strategies and tools introduced in the PD were applied in nuanced and culturally grounded ways. Both Alice and Judy moved toward foundational supports that reflected an understanding of language and literacy development as situated within cultural, familial, and linguistic contexts. For Alice, this meant attending to name recognition and phonics for individual ML students, whereas for Judy, it included bilingual instruction and an intentional honoring of home languages. Their practices were increasingly scaffolded for academic goals as well as connection, belonging, and empowerment. Collaboration played a central role in this embedding process. Alice drew on school‐based resources and community liaisons to bridge communication with families, whereas Judy extended her collaborations to include outreach via digital tools, real‐time communication with families, and intentional alignment of school‐home supports. Implementing PD learning marked a shift in stance toward linguistic sustainability, cultural responsiveness, and family engagement.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-70">Fostering Community Implementation</hd> <p>At its most extensive reach, implementation extended beyond the classroom and into families and communities. This phase reflected a transformation in teacher identity, from one who supports MLs within the classroom to one who partners with caregivers and communities to co‐construct learning ecologies. Judy's implementation most clearly demonstrated this shift. Her efforts to support caregivers through bilingual materials, tech‐enabled communication, and real‐time collaboration positioned families as active participants in learning. Her advocacy efforts also had ripple effects, as seen in the grassroots literacy group formed by a caregiver in her network. Although Alice's community engagement was less expansive, the caregivers she invited to the PD process showed growth in confidence and a deeper awareness of the complexities of supporting MLs. In some cases, this awareness led to more tempered confidence—reflecting a recognition of the work ahead. In this phase, implementation became an ecosystemic act, rooted in care, shared responsibility, and a collective investment in the linguistic and literacy development of children and their families.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-71">Discussion: From Seeds to Cross‐Pollination in Culturally Sustaining Pedagogical Ecologies</hd> <p>This study set out to explore the full circle of multilingual literacy PD on teachers, students, and caregivers by addressing two research questions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref106">1</reflink>) <emph>How did participation in a literacy PD focused on instruction for MLs impact teachers' knowledge and self‐efficacy?</emph> (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref107">2</reflink>) <emph>How did this PD shape teachers' implementation of pedagogy and interactions with students and caregivers?</emph> Using an ecological, sociocognitive perspective (Gee [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref108">19</reflink>]) and grounded in CSP (Paris and Alim [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref109">33</reflink>]), the findings from two focal cases demonstrate how seeds planted through PD took root and flourished across layered systems of influence, from individual growth to broader community transformation (see Figure 9).</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/02apr26/rrq70105-fig-0009.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq70105-fig-0009.jpg" title="9 A culturally sustaining pedagogical ecology." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193225972-73">Planting the Seed: Developing Knowledge and Self‐Efficacy</hd> <p>In the earliest phases of growth, the PD acted as a seed planted in the personal soil of teacher knowledge and self‐efficacy. Both Alice and Judy began the PD with limited prior preparation in multilingual literacy practices. Early reflections revealed uncertainty, especially in areas like writing instruction and caregiver engagement. Over time, both teachers developed stronger conceptual understandings and began applying tools and strategies introduced through the PD. For Alice, this included using translation tools and building confidence through structured repetition and visuals. For Judy, growth was marked by a dramatic shift in both self‐perception and praxis, moving from limited knowledge to complete confidence, and from implementing strategies to advocating for systemic improvements.</p> <p>This part of the ecological model presented affirms prior research suggesting that sustained, critically grounded PD can enhance teacher agency (Chen [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref110">10</reflink>]) and create conditions for teachers to reflect, reframe, and reimagine their practice (Desimone [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref111">14</reflink>]; Paris and Alim [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref112">34</reflink>]). Knowledge and confidence emerged and germinated slowly through cycles of trial, error, and reflection.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-74">Taking Root: Embedding Sustaining Practices in Classrooms</hd> <p>As these seeds took root, implementation became a process of anchoring theory in practice. Teachers moved beyond generalized strategies toward responsive, culturally grounded literacy supports that reflected the sociocultural realities of their classrooms. Alice, for example, embedded culturally responsive supports in her small group instruction and began to incorporate student home languages into materials and routines. Judy, in contrast, exhibited a more sustaining bilingual approach, teaching in Spanish and English, using visuals, audio recordings, and collaborative structures to scaffold access for all learners.</p> <p>In this middle phase of growth, teachers also began to collaborate intentionally with caregivers. Alice partnered with a school‐based translator to ensure accurate home‐school communication, whereas Judy created a bilingual Google Classroom and leveraged video calls to bring caregivers directly into the instructional process. These practices show how CSP was implemented in instruction and embodied in relational pedagogy.</p> <p>Here, the ecology shifted beyond the individual teacher or classroom into embedded practice. Teachers became confident implementers and responsive facilitators of multilingual learning, anchoring pedagogical change into the soil of lived experiences and daily routines.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-75">Blooming and Cross‐Pollinating: Fostering Community Implementation</hd> <p>The full bloom of this work occurred when teachers extended their influence beyond the classroom, cultivating growth in students, caregivers, and broader communities. For Judy, this meant supporting caregivers through modeling, translation, and advocacy, resulting in increased connection with caregivers such as the grassroots literacy group established among Swahili‐speaking families. Although Alice's outreach was less expansive, she successfully engaged caregivers like Kristen and Eliza in the literacy‐focused PD. We noted their shifting confidence and nuanced understandings of what literacy support is needed for their ML students.</p> <p>Caregivers' growth mirrored the teachers' own trajectories—moving from awareness to advocacy, from isolated strategies to integrated ecosystems of learning. These ripple effects illustrate the ecological nature of educational transformation: when teachers grow, so do their students, their families, and the larger communities in which they are embedded (Bronfenbrenner [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref113">7</reflink>]; Stanley and Kuo [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref114">38</reflink>]).</p> <p>This part of the ecosystem underscores the transformative potential of CSP‐oriented PD that is sustained, situated, and community‐engaged. It supports calls from López‐Robertson ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref115">28</reflink>]) and Harris et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref116">22</reflink>]) to view multilingual families as co‐constructors of literacy ecologies.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-76">Implications: A Full‐Circle Pedagogy of Growth</hd> <p>This study contributes to a growing body of scholarship (e.g., López‐Robertson [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref117">28</reflink>]; Yosso [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref118">43</reflink>]) that centers MLs, caregivers, and educators as active participants in shaping literacy ecologies. Findings suggest that teacher learning is most impactful when studied beyond individual knowledge gains to a relational process that unfolds over time and across systems. We contribute a set of continua, from awareness to advocacy, from translation to transformation, and from individual shifts to collective change, as conceptual tools for tracing educator growth across the dimensions of knowledge, self‐efficacy, and implementation. Additionally, we offer an ecological metaphor that positions CSP as a living system: one that is co‐constructed, adaptive, and sustained through relational interdependence among children, families, and educators.</p> <p>Future research could expand on these insights by tracing similar ripple effects in different contexts, including other formal and informal learning environments. Longitudinal studies would be especially useful in capturing how these pedagogical seeds continue to grow or shift after formal PD ends, and how teacher and caregiver agency evolves over time. Additionally, this study points to the importance of mixed methods designs that foreground qualitative depth while offering space for survey‐based patterns to emerge.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-77">Implications for PD</hd> <p>The findings reinforce the value of sustained, critically grounded PD that connects instructional strategies with cultural responsiveness and caregiver engagement. PD is needed that attends to teachers' confidence, identity, and praxis within larger systems. Effective PD must also position caregivers as active knowledge‐holders and partners. Co‐designed and multilingual PD experiences that include families alongside teachers can catalyze powerful shifts in practice and perception. Facilitators of PD should also attend to both the emotional and logistical labor of implementation, offering tools that support strategy uptake and systemic navigation. The continua we developed could be useful tools for those designing PD, perhaps to use with teachers as a tool for self‐reflection and growth.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-78">Implications for Educational Systems and Policy</hd> <p>This study calls for broader structural support for MLs and their communities. Teachers cannot be expected to enact CSP alone; they require time, resources, and institutional backing. School systems must move beyond compliance‐oriented views of language support and invest in policies that recognize the assets and contributions of multilingual families. These include integrated literacy initiatives, bilingual communication infrastructure, and evaluation frameworks that attend to relational and cultural dimensions of teaching and learning. Policymakers must also consider how PD is resourced and evaluated to ensure it supports long‐term, community‐engaged pedagogical change.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-79">Limitations</hd> <p>Although this study offers a rich, multi‐layered account of PD implementation and its ripple effects, we acknowledge its limitations. First, the small sample size and case study design limit generalizability. The findings are contextually bound to two educators and their specific teaching and community environments. Second, although caregiver surveys and anecdotes provided important perspectives, they were limited in number and depth because of time constraints and participant availability. Finally, as students were 4 and 5 years old, their survey responses were likely inputted by teachers, introducing potentially biased responses and limited time constraints. Future studies might build on this work by incorporating broader participant samples, longer durations, and collaborative research designs that include caregivers and students as co‐researchers.</p> <p>Returning to Judy's powerful framing, "it all comes full circle," we see how culturally sustaining multilingual literacy pedagogies moved from seeds of knowledge and confidence to classroom practices, and finally, to the blooming collective learning communities. PD, when sustained critically grounded, has the power to change individual classrooms and beyond, to cultivate entire ecosystems where equity, language, and literacy can flourish across concentric circles of influence.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-80">Funding</hd> <p>This work was supported by the Office of English Language Acquisition (T365Z210089).</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-81">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0193225972-82">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>Consent for data to be shared publicly was not included in our IRB application, supporting data is not available publicly.</p> <ref id="AN0193225972-83"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref3" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> <emph>Author Note:</emph> The contents of this journal article were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education, Office of English Language Acquisition, National Professional Development grant, #T365Z210089. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: 'It All Comes Full Circle': The Impact of Multilingual Literacy Pedagogies with Teachers, Students, and Families
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Victoria+Pennington%22">Victoria Pennington</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3278-1476">0000-0002-3278-1476</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lindsey+W%2E+Rowe%22">Lindsey W. Rowe</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8874-7560">0000-0001-8874-7560</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Emily+Howell%22">Emily Howell</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Nicole+Ferguson-Sams%22">Nicole Ferguson-Sams</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mihaela+Gazioglu%22">Mihaela Gazioglu</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kavita+Mittapalli%22">Kavita Mittapalli</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Amlan+Banerjee%22">Amlan Banerjee</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Reading+Research+Quarterly%22"><i>Reading Research Quarterly</i></searchLink>. 2026 61(2).
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 24
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: SourceSuprt
  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA) (ED)
– Name: NumberContract
  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: T365Z210089
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Preschool+Education%22">Preschool Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Teachers%22">Preschool Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Faculty+Development%22">Faculty Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Multilingualism%22">Multilingualism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Literacy%22">Literacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Literacy+Education%22">Literacy Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pedagogical+Content+Knowledge%22">Pedagogical Content Knowledge</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Caregivers%22">Child Caregivers</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/rrq.70105
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0034-0553<br />1936-2722
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study examines how sustained professional development (PD) in multilingual literacy pedagogies shapes teacher's pedagogical practices and interactions with students and caregivers. Situated in a high-needs district in the Southeastern U.S., the PD was embedded in a two-year online MEd program with a cohort of 23 teachers, paired with a caregiver literacy course for multilingual families. Using a case study approach, we closely analyzed two focal kindergarten teachers, their students (n = 117) across three school years, and student caregivers (n = 6) to explore the ecological reach of the PD. Data sources included teacher interviews, surveys, and multimodal coursework; student surveys; and caregiver surveys. Drawing on sociocognitive theory and culturally sustaining pedagogies (CSP), findings show increases in teacher knowledge, self-efficacy, and implementation, alongside strengthened relationships with caregivers. Caregivers reported increased confidence and knowledge in supporting children's language and literacy practices, highlighting the reciprocal nature of learning across school and home. Students showed growth in literacy engagement, with teacher observations underscoring shifts in participation and confidence. This "full circle" effect demonstrates that PD designed for teachers can have sustained, systemic impact when extended to the broader educational ecology. The study offers implications for research, professional learning design, and policy aimed at sustaining multilingual students' linguistic and cultural resources through coordinated teacher and caregiver support.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1503967
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1503967
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/rrq.70105
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 24
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Kindergarten
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Faculty Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Multilingualism
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Literacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Literacy Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pedagogical Content Knowledge
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Caregivers
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: 'It All Comes Full Circle': The Impact of Multilingual Literacy Pedagogies with Teachers, Students, and Families
        Type: main
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              Type: published
              Y: 2026
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            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0034-0553
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              Value: 1936-2722
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