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Meaningful Access to Advanced Placement Programs

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Title: Meaningful Access to Advanced Placement Programs
Language: English
Authors: Amber M. Graeber (ORCID 0000-0002-2541-3931), Angela Tuttle Prince (ORCID 0000-0003-2704-9464)
Source: Journal of Advanced Academics. 2026 37(2):220-250.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 31
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Advanced Placement Programs, Access to Education, Equal Education, Program Implementation, Urban Schools, School Districts, Central Office Administrators, Principals, Assistant Principals, Program Administration, School Counselors, Counselor Attitudes, Teacher Attitudes, Administrator Attitudes, Leadership, Minority Group Students, Disproportionate Representation, Beliefs, Reflection, Administrator Behavior, High Schools
DOI: 10.1177/1932202X251389234
ISSN: 1932-202X
2162-9536
Abstract: Rigorous academic preparation in high school is a strong predictor of postsecondary success. The College Board's Advanced Placement (AP) program allows students to earn college credit while in high school; however, disparities in equitable participation remain a persistent concern. This qualitative multiple-case study explored equity-focused AP program implementation in two urban school districts in the Midwest. From interviews with 29 school leaders, the study examined participants' beliefs, leadership practices, and reflections on equitable AP access. Findings highlight examples of community-engaged, social justice leadership that promote inclusive participation in AP coursework.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1504272
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0193364112;[261p]01may.26;2026May04.05:11;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0193364112-1">Meaningful Access to Advanced Placement Programs </title> <p>Rigorous academic preparation in high school is a strong predictor of postsecondary success. The College Board's Advanced Placement (AP) program allows students to earn college credit while in high school; however, disparities in equitable participation remain a persistent concern. This qualitative multiple-case study explored equity-focused AP program implementation in two urban school districts in the Midwest. From interviews with 29 school leaders, the study examined participants' beliefs, leadership practices, and reflections on equitable AP access. Findings highlight examples of community-engaged, social justice leadership that promote inclusive participation in AP coursework.</p> <p>Keywords: Advanced Placement; educational equity; school leadership; traditionally underrepresented students; access</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-2">Educational Leaders' Roles in Meaningful Access to AP Programs for Underrepresented Students...</hd> <p>Public schools are tasked with ensuring <emph>all students</emph> are college- and career-ready. Schools serve diverse learners, but opportunity gaps for traditionally underrepresented students persist. As efforts to achieve equitable access and outcomes for traditionally underrepresented students continue, the role of the College Board's Advanced Placement (AP) program remains a subject of debate. While AP programs have been researched in relation to access and outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref1">18</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref2">52</reflink>]), there is relatively little research focused on how school leaders enact equity-focused practices to transform AP programming. Some scholars assert that AP programs are one way school leaders can provide opportunities to help traditionally underrepresented students gain meaningful access and succeed in postsecondary education ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref3">45</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref4">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref5">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>Created in the 1950s by the College Board, the AP program was intended to increase college opportunities and student success. As a not-for-profit membership association, high school teachers provide these college-level courses to high school students. AP courses are offered in over 23,000 schools across the country, and roughly 1.2 million high school students in the class of 2023 took one or more AP exams ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref6">46</reflink>]). However, the lack of equitable participation by underrepresented students continues to plague the program ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref7">52</reflink>]). Qualifying courses are authorized through the College Board's annual audit process ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref8">38</reflink>]). Benefits of the AP experience for high school students include an enhanced transcript when applying for college admission, qualifying for postsecondary scholarships, earning college credit while in high school, obtaining AP in college coursework, decreasing time to degree, and acquiring the habits of mind to be successful in a rigorous academic setting such that institutions of higher education require ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref9">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref10">41</reflink>]). Access and success in postsecondary education include long-term benefits, such as earning more money, paying more taxes, retaining employment, increasing health and longevity, and paying less for healthcare ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref11">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Research on AP programs has centered on schools and district practices that lead to inequitable student access and disproportionate outcomes in AP ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref12">18</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref13">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref14">34</reflink>]). Peer-reviewed research has documented that AP outcomes are inequitable across student demographic groups ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref15">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref16">52</reflink>]). However, far less is known about how school leaders use practices to intentionally disrupt inequitable school or district traditions, practices, and systems around AP.</p> <p>This study was designed to identify leadership practices that promote equity-focused AP access and support traditionally underrepresented students in urban school settings. In this paper, we use the terms "minoritized" and "traditionally underrepresented" to describe students whose opportunities have been limited by systemic inequities in education. We use "minoritized" to emphasize the active social practices that both create and sustain inequity, rather than a simple numerical representation. The use of "traditionally underrepresented" is common language in educational research, though in this study it primarily refers to racialized groups, while acknowledging the intersection of race with socioeconomic status and other identities. We define equity-focused AP programs as those that intentionally remove artificial barriers to student access to AP and leadership actions that ensure all students get what they need to find academic and personal success in AP. Given the existence of AP programming as an existing phenomenon in secondary schools across the United States, this study looked closely at two districts that have made deliberate, equity-focused changes to their schools' existing AP programs. This study was guided by the following research question: How do school leaders' beliefs, actions, and reflections lead to equitable access to AP for traditionally underrepresented students?</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-3">Background</hd> <p>While public schools are expected to ensure <emph>all</emph> students are college and career-ready, data shows gaps remain in graduation rates between traditionally underrepresented students and their white counterparts (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref17">31</reflink>]). The adjusted cohort graduation rate (ACGR) for white students is 90%, while the Black student completion rate is 81% and the Hispanic student completion rate is 83% ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref18">31</reflink>]). Scholars have explored opportunity gaps to illuminate the many reasons for gaps in educational outcomes. Opportunity gaps that exist for traditionally underrepresented students include limited enrollment in high-quality schools ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref19">23</reflink>]), restricted participation in rigorous coursework and academic tracking ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref20">27</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref21">33</reflink>]), overrepresentation in special education programs, and underrepresentation in gifted and talented programs ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref22">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref23">42</reflink>]). Additionally, teacher bias often results in lower expectations for traditionally underrepresented students ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref24">6</reflink>]). Underrepresented students are also more likely to be issued behavior referrals that result in exclusionary discipline ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref25">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref26">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref27">42</reflink>]). Opportunity gaps in AP programming are well-documented and problematic because they limit traditionally underrepresented students' access to rigorous academic preparation, college credit opportunities, and equitable pathways to post-secondary success ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref28">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref29">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref30">52</reflink>]). These disparities reinforce existing inequities in education and can perpetuate achievement gaps.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-4">Criticism of the AP Program</hd> <p>Many in education have criticized AP as a program for the privileged ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref31">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref32">38</reflink>]). Founded by educators from elite preparatory academies, the AP program grew slowly ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref33">40</reflink>]). A few years after its founding, exams began to be administered to select students participating in the program. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref34">40</reflink>] reported that in 1969, only 14% of high schools offered AP courses, and the program was limited to predominately white and wealthy areas of the United States. In the 1970s, leaders and school reformers began to see AP as a potential school reform tool to close opportunity gaps for underrepresented students; however, the disparities in access persisted ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref35">40</reflink>]).</p> <p>In 2001, the College Board responded to criticisms of elitism. It issued its Equity Policy Statement, which calls on schools to make "equitable access a guiding principle" and "encourages the elimination of barriers that restrict access" to AP programming ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref36">44</reflink>], n.p.). School leaders engaged in practices to remove artificial barriers to student access in AP participation by underrepresented students that has resulted in an increase of approximately 143,000 underrepresented seniors taking one or more AP exams in 2012 to over 400,000 underrepresented seniors in 2022 ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref37">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>The aggressive expansion of AP to underrepresented students was not without criticism. Critics argue that the expansion of AP primarily benefits the College Board financially. Others argue that the AP program's credibility has been diminished as participation has expanded to serve a more diverse group of high school students ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>]). For example, in 2018, several private schools in the D.C. area announced the phasing out of their AP classes by 2022 ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref39">1</reflink>]). Other elite institutions, such as Dartmouth College, announced that they no longer award college credit for students' passing AP exam scores ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref40">26</reflink>]). Other institutions raised their scoring requirements for receiving college credit. These perspectives highlight economic and political factors shaping access to AP. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref41">40</reflink>] refers to AP's declining prestige as an unintended, but expected consequence, of its rapid growth in schools serving traditionally underrepresented students. As more traditionally underrepresented students participated in AP, elite stakeholders perceived a dilution of exclusivity ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref42">40</reflink>]). This reflects a larger tension in U.S. education, where expanding access often challenges the status valued by selective institutions. Thus, while some elite, private schools have begun moving away from AP in recent years, many public schools, particularly those serving traditionally underrepresented students, continue to expand their AP programs ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref43">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>Because AP programming is shaped by both local implementation and larger political debates, its controversies—particularly around curriculum—demonstrate how questions of equity intersect with politics. In 2014, the College Board revised the AP U.S. History curriculum, which led to criticism from conservative groups ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref44">43</reflink>]). They argued that the new framework downplayed American exceptionalism and emphasized negative aspects of U.S. history. As a result, the College Board released a revised version in 2015 to address concerns and provide a more balanced approach to U.S. history ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref45">43</reflink>]). In 2023, the College Board introduced a new course—AP African American Studies—which led to debate about key topics included in the course such as Black Lives Matter, slavery reparations, queer theory, and Black feminism. While conservatives put political pressure on the College Board to make changes, revisions made to the curriculum framework were then met with frustration from progressives who felt the changes were only made to appease conservatives ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref46">29</reflink>]). Despite such controversies, school leaders and teachers serving traditionally underrepresented students have many reasons to retain and develop AP programming, such as the curriculum supports, online teaching resources, professional development opportunities, and access to a professional learning community ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref47">40</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite the College Board's policy statement and services available to schools and districts related to equity, AP programming is ultimately implemented by individual schools and districts. Equity-focused AP programs have been slow to develop, and many schools have continued past practices that lead to many artificial barriers to underrepresented student participation in AP ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref48">30</reflink>]). Artificial barriers, such as requiring teacher recommendations, setting a minimum GPA, academic tracking, or charging exam fees, often limit AP access for students who are capable but systemically excluded. Without removing these socially constructed barriers, inequitable enrollment practices continue to exist ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref49">30</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-5">School Leadership</hd> <p>Since AP programming is ultimately implemented at the local level, school and district leaders hold significant power in shaping whether school policies and practices translate into equitable opportunities for students. School leadership is essential to undoing past practices and implementing a vision steeped in equity and opportunity for traditionally underrepresented students in AP programs. It is important to understand how leadership was situated in this study to unpack how school leaders think about their beliefs, intentions, actions, and impact. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref50">24</reflink>] defined leadership as "the exercise of influence on organizational members and diverse stakeholders toward the identification and achievement of the organization's vision and goals" (p. 3). This study argues that leadership can be demonstrated by individuals in different roles, including principals, assistant principals, teachers, and school counselors. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref51">19</reflink>] asserted that student learning outcomes are more likely to improve when leadership is distributed throughout the school community. This research investigates school leaders who engage in leadership activities to develop and sustain equity-focused AP programs, and we argue that its success in closing opportunity gaps is related to the distribution of leadership (Graeber et al., 2024).</p> <p>Social justice leadership is a relatively new form of school leadership that scholars in the field are investigating. The empirical research available is most often in the form of case studies on individual social justice leaders in various contexts ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref52">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref53">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref54">49</reflink>]). Theoharis ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref55">48</reflink>]) defines social justice leadership as one in which leaders "make issues of race, class, gender, disability, sexual orientation, and other historically and currently marginalizing conditions in the United States central to their advocacy, leadership practice, and vision" (p. 223). [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref56">49</reflink>] referenced inequitable structures, low morale, and unequal access and outcomes, meaning that achievement gaps are related to corresponding opportunity gaps. High school AP programs are a key academic structure that have provided opportunities for some students while denying them to others, thereby exacerbating opportunity gaps for traditionally underrepresented students ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref57">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref58">30</reflink>]). School leaders who embrace social justice leadership can take bold, necessary actions to address these inequities. This includes setting a clear vision for the school's AP program, hiring and supporting AP teachers, collaborating with school counselors to create equitable access points, and intentionally communicating about the AP program to traditionally underrepresented students and their families. This study contributes to research on social justice leadership, emphasizing creating and sustaining an equity-focused AP program.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-6">Conceptual Framework</hd> <p>[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref59">10</reflink>] created the "Community Engaged Leadership for Social Justice" framework to guide school leaders to adopt an equity mindset, engage in culturally responsive leadership, and expand democratic leadership principles. Most scholars agree that social justice leadership is strongly connected to advocacy, or leadership actions, taken within the school and larger community ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref60">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref61">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref62">49</reflink>]). The framework contains five facets of community-engaged social justice leadership: personal experiences and commitments, situational awareness, advocacy, critical reflection and praxis, and technical expertise ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref63">10</reflink>]). The primary author selected two facets to guide this study: personal experiences and commitments and advocacy.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-7">Personal Experiences and Commitments</hd> <p>A leader's belief system is influenced by lived experiences, which "shape each principal's worldviews, historical position within society, and how they make sense of prevailing power relations" ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref64">10</reflink>], p. 118). Based on a school leader's personal belief system, the leader is more likely to notice the inequity of the surrounding school structures, practices, and policies that marginalize individuals and groups in the school community ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref65">10</reflink>]). A social justice orientation on the part of the school leader is a necessary foundation according to much of the research on social justice leadership ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref66">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref67">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref68">49</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref69">22</reflink>] described a leader for social justice as having a personal belief system based on high expectations for all students. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref70">13</reflink>] insisted that "leaders must believe in their core that students learn best when they are educated in heterogeneous educational settings, period" (p. 11).</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-8">Advocacy</hd> <p>[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref71">10</reflink>] stated that social justice leadership is about personal experiences and commitments and taking action to address inequities. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref72">10</reflink>] refers to actions in the service of social justice as advocacy. School leaders engaging in advocacy must act with "courage, a willingness to take risks, and with a bias toward democratic engagement" ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref73">10</reflink>], p. 121). Most scholars agree that social justice leadership is strongly connected to the advocacy, or leadership actions, taken within the school and larger school community ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref74">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref75">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref76">49</reflink>]). Leadership actions included creating a safe, caring learning environment for students, meaningful supports and opportunities for students, and capacity-building with staff to dismantle deficit thinking and utilize an assets-based approach when making decisions about school policies and practices ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref77">11</reflink>]). Examples of advocacy can be demonstrated through a variety of leadership roles. Principals, assistant principals, teacher leaders, counselors, and student leaders can take these leadership actions on behalf of the school's social justice agenda.</p> <p>This study used DeMatthews' ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref78">10</reflink>]) conceptualizations of personal experiences and commitments and advocacy to investigate the research question to transform traditional AP structures and practices. Disrupting educational structures and practices perpetuating systemic inequity for underrepresented students requires intentional vision and action by school leaders. We argue that community-engaged social justice leadership is necessary to disrupt and transform traditional AP programming.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-9">Method</hd> <p>Qualitative research enables researchers to explore the perspectives of individuals and groups through exploration and guided inquiry ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref79">8</reflink>]). Qualitative research emphasizes depth over breadth, allowing researchers to describe, interpret, and tell meaningful stories about human experiences ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref80">35</reflink>]). The purpose of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of how equity-focused AP programming is implemented in two Midwestern urban school districts. The study followed a methodology designed to capture narrative accounts of school leaders' beliefs, actions, and reflections on their practices.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-10">Data Collection Methods</hd> <p>This study used a multiple-case design ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref81">53</reflink>]). Cases were bounded by school districts in the Midwest selected for their efforts to expand equitable AP access. The selection process addressed a gap in prior research by focusing on leadership practices ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref82">7</reflink>]). Schools with explicitly stated equity goals in AP programming are rare ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref83">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref84">52</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-11">Site-Based Screening and Selection</hd> <p>This study used a criterion-based case selection to determine which districts would be invited to participate. Districts were considered if they served a majority of traditionally underrepresented students, had equity-focused AP programming, and had publicly available AP program information on their district websites. To identify potential districts, the first author consulted with regional College Board staff, who support implementation of College Board programs, including AP. Through email and phone conversations, College Board staff shared the names of districts engaged in equity-focused work. Based on this information, five Midwestern urban school districts met the study criteria. The first author then contacted individuals in each district's research or assessment department to extend invitations to participate in the study. Ultimately, two of the five school districts agreed to participate in the study: Midland School District and River Falls School District. Approval for the study was obtained from the university's Institutional Review Board and from both participating districts.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-12">Case 1: Midland School District</hd> <p>Midland School District is an urban school in the Midwest that serves around 15,000 students, 40% are minoritized, and approximately 60% qualify for free or reduced-price lunch. Of the 38 AP courses offered by the College Board, Midland School District offers over 30 AP courses to students in their three comprehensive high schools. The district's high schools serve students who live in specified attendance zones or neighborhoods. Study participants from Midland School District included one central office director, four principals (one retired), two assistant principals, one AP coordinator, two school counselors, and four AP teachers. Of those participants, two identified as minoritized, and 12 identified as white.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-13">Case 2: River Falls School District</hd> <p>The River Falls School District is an urban school district in the Midwest serving approximately 70,000 students in over 30 high schools. Of the students in River Falls, 90% are minoritized, and approximately 80% qualify for free or reduced-price lunches. Of the 30 high schools, 20 offer one or more AP courses. The number of AP courses offered at these 20 high schools varied from four to more than 30 AP courses, depending on the year. The district's high schools serve students from both the local neighborhood and across the city. The district provides choices to students looking for a specific pathway or study area, such as the arts, languages, and health sciences. Study participants from River Falls School District included one central office director, three principals, four AP coordinators, and six AP teachers. Of those participants, six identified as minoritized, and nine identified as white.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-14">Sampling for School Leaders</hd> <p>The sampling strategy used was complete target population sampling, meaning that everyone within "a unique group of interest" was invited to participate in the study ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref85">35</reflink>], p. 268). Each school leader with roles and duties related to the AP program was invited to participate. School leaders, including central office directors, high school principals, assistant principals, school counselors, AP coordinators, and AP teacher leaders in each district, were requested to participate via email. Potential participants who responded to the initial email could discuss the study with the first author. If they met the criteria on the screener, a formal invitation was sent through email and included the consent document. If the potential participant did not meet the criteria in the screener, the first author asked for the names of colleagues or others they knew from their school district who might be helpful to this study.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-15">Participant Characteristics</hd> <p>Following the introductory email and use of the screener, 36 potential participants were identified. Of the 36 potential participants, 29 consented to the study. The 29 qualifying school leaders interact with their school or district's AP program in several ways, including central office directors (<emph>n</emph> = 2), building principals (<emph>n</emph> = 7), assistant principals (<emph>n</emph> = 2), AP coordinators (<emph>n</emph> = 5), school counselors (<emph>n</emph> = 3), and AP teachers (<emph>n</emph> = 10). The participants included various professional experiences and personal characteristics that they voluntarily self-disclosed. Of the 29 participants, 11 identified as male and 18 as female. Regarding race and ethnicity, 21 participants identified as white, while five identified as African American, two as Latina, and one as Puerto Rican-American. In terms of years of experience in K-12 schools, five participants were in their first 10 years, 10 participants had 10–19 years of experience, 10 participants had 20–29 years of experience, and four participants had 30 years or more of experience. Regardless of their current role in schools, over half of the participants had experience teaching one or more AP courses. All participants, school, and district names were replaced with pseudonyms to protect their confidentiality. See Table 1 for individual demographic information.</p> <p>Table 1. Participants by District, Pseudonym, Role, and School.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left">District</th><th align="left">Participant Pseudonym</th><th align="left">Gender</th><th align="left">Race/Ethnicity</th><th align="left">Years of Experience</th><th align="left">Role</th><th align="left">School</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Midland School District</td><td>Eagan</td><td>Male</td><td>White</td><td>15</td><td>Executive Director</td><td>Central Office</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Johnson</td><td>Male</td><td>Puerto Rican</td><td>25</td><td>Principal</td><td>North High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Manning</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>23</td><td>Assistant Principal</td><td>North High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Piper</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>23</td><td>School Counselor</td><td>North High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Smith</td><td>Male</td><td>White</td><td>21</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>North High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Miller</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>19</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>North High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Williams</td><td>Male</td><td>White</td><td>32</td><td>Principal</td><td>West High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Anderson</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>11</td><td>AP Coordinator</td><td>West High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Brown</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>26</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>West High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Moore</td><td>Male</td><td>Black</td><td>10</td><td>Principal</td><td>South High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Kennedy</td><td>Male</td><td>White</td><td>49</td><td>Retired Principal</td><td>South High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Jackson</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>23</td><td>Assistant Principal</td><td>South High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Lee</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>14</td><td>School Counselor</td><td>South High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Thompson</td><td>Male</td><td>White</td><td>22</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>South High School</td></tr><tr><td>River Falls School District</td><td>Clark</td><td>Female</td><td>Black</td><td>32</td><td>Executive Director</td><td>Central Office</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Harris</td><td>Male</td><td>Black</td><td>29</td><td>Principal</td><td>Oxbow High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Lopez</td><td>Female</td><td>Latina</td><td>10</td><td>School Counselor</td><td>Oxbow High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Lewis</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>10</td><td>AP Coordinator</td><td>Oxbow High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Green</td><td>Female</td><td>Black</td><td>13</td><td>Principal</td><td>Brooks High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Garcia</td><td>Female</td><td>Latina</td><td>15</td><td>AP Coordinator</td><td>Brooks High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Young</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>8</td><td>AP Coordinator</td><td>Beck High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Wright</td><td>Male</td><td>White</td><td>29</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>Beck High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>King</td><td>Male</td><td>White</td><td>15</td><td>Principal</td><td>Delta High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Robinson</td><td>Female</td><td>Black</td><td>34</td><td>AP Coordinator</td><td>Delta High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Hill</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>12</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>Delta High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Allen</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>18</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>Delta High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Baker</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>10</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>Delta High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Grant</td><td>Male</td><td>White</td><td>23</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>Delta High School</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Campbell</td><td>Female</td><td>White</td><td>14</td><td>AP Teacher</td><td>Delta High School</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> AP = Advanced Placement.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-16">Data Collection</hd> <p>This study conformed to the ethical requirements of research and received approval from the Institutional Review Board. Data collection included semi-structured interviews, focus group interviews, and document analysis. Using multiple sources of qualitative evidence enabled data triangulation between school leaders within one school district and between the two school districts. Semi-structured and focus group interviews allowed participants to tell anecdotes, stories, experiences, and descriptions of situations and events. Direct quotes from these interviews were an important data source analyzed during the qualitative inquiry process ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref86">35</reflink>]). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all interviews were conducted virtually.</p> <p> <bold>Semi-structured interviews<emph>.</emph></bold> In this study, up to two semi-structured interviews occurred between the first author and each participant. The first interview focused on the leaders' personal beliefs and commitments. Sample interview questions included "Describe your experiences working with traditionally underrepresented students" and "Share a story of how your personal life experiences have shaped your beliefs about social justice." The second interview focused on the participants' leadership actions related to their AP program and leadership for change practices. Sample interview questions included "I understand your Advanced Placement program has undergone some shifts and changes. Could you think back to what your AP program was like in the past?" and "What role did you play in the change process?" and "Tell me about how your school's current AP program relates to your own social justice goals." Participants could choose back-to-back interviews or interviews separated by several days or weeks. All participants were interviewed using Zoom, a suitable platform for collecting qualitative data ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref87">3</reflink>]). Each semi-structured interview lasted between 25 and 65 min. Times for interview one ranged from 26 to 53 min with an average length of 43 min. Times for interview two ranged from 25 to 33 min, with an average length of 29 min.</p> <p> <bold>Focus group interviews<emph>.</emph></bold> Focus group interviews conducted by the primary author provided an opportunity to explore ideas initially gathered from semi-structured interviews and learn more from participants as they conversed with others in similar leadership positions. The first focus group took place with all four AP coordinators in River Falls and lasted 53 min. This is a group of leaders that met regularly in River Falls and provided an opportunity for researchers to learn more about their specific leadership actions. Midland did not have the same learning community for AP coordinators, but AP teachers expressed an interest in a focus group interview. The second focus group included three of the four participating AP teachers in Midland and lasted 45 min. The focus groups centered participant voices in multiple roles and provided evidence of both personal beliefs and advocacy. Sample questions from the focus group interview included "How would you describe the current process for registering for an AP course?" and "Tell me about how students are supported in their AP coursework."</p> <p> <bold>Document analysis.</bold> Document analyses allow the researcher to see the language used by participants at a time convenient to the researcher ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref88">8</reflink>]). We analyzed documents related to implementing equity-focused AP programs. All documents reviewed were public and accessible from district websites, school websites, or counseling offices. This included an analysis of district handbooks, student handbooks, course registration materials, and district and school website information. None of the documents were directly tied to any participants.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-17">Data Analysis and Coding</hd> <p>To begin coding, the first author reviewed all the data and reflection memos and used the data to determine themes or categories for analysis. Structural coding was used in the first-cycle coding of the collected data. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref89">39</reflink>] argues that structural coding uses a "content-based or conceptual phrase representing a topic of inquiry to a segment of data that relates to a specific research question" (p. 98). DeMatthews' ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref90">10</reflink>]) Community Engaged Leadership for Social Justice framework provided the initial coding structure in this study. The initial codes were derived from the conceptual framework ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref91">10</reflink>]). This study was part of a larger research project and focused on two facets of the framework: personal experiences and commitments and advocacy to understand how school leaders' beliefs, actions, and reflections lead to meaningful access to AP for traditionally underrepresented students.</p> <p>The initial analysis involved close readings of all transcriptions, interview notes, and documents. All transcribed interviews and accompanying notes were sorted by site. Data were first coded into the general, predetermined categories using the initial codes derived from the conceptual framework: personal experiences and commitments and advocacy. A different color represented each initial code to make the data visible. Second, the data was further refined into sub-categories in each general category.</p> <p>The final data analysis steps involved interpreting the findings and results from each case and between the cases. Using a qualitative meta-synthesis allowed the first author to thoroughly compare case studies to draw cross-case conclusions ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref92">39</reflink>]). This qualitative meta-summary used the coding and theming of data from each case to help illuminate the similarities and differences in school leaders' perceptions of their beliefs, actions, and reflections related to their AP program. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref93">39</reflink>] wrote that the goal of the meta-summary is not to oversimplify the various narratives but to create new perspectives on the issues being studied. Figure 1 provides a way to visualize the coding process.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Coding Method.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-18">Positionality</hd> <p>Positionality influences an individual's frame of reference or perspective. The first author's positionality as a white, middle-class woman influences this research into traditionally underrepresented student experiences in AP courses. As an AP teacher and former district AP coordinator, she had a personal connection to, and a belief in the power of, the College Board's AP program as a means for increasing rigor and opportunity in the high school experience. She also had experiences as a former AP coordinator in a mid-sized, urban district in the Midwest that made efforts to forge an equity-focused AP program. The second author was a supporting researcher in this study. She identifies as a white, middle-class individual with multiple advanced degrees who has worked in PK-12 schools but not specifically with AP programs. As outsiders to the districts studied, we positioned ourselves as allies seeking to amplify leaders' equity-focused practices. As scholars with backgrounds in educational leadership, we recognize our training and professional experiences may lead us to interpret equity challenges primarily through a systems lens. This leads us to focus on school and district policies, leadership practices, and institutional barriers, rather than on individual teacher or student factors. To mitigate this bias, we engaged in peer debriefing through the research process.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-19">Trustworthiness and Rigor</hd> <p>Multiple strategies were implemented to manage subjectivity and ensure rigor. The semi-structured and focus group interview data were triangulated with document analyses. The triangulation of multiple sources ensured that emerging themes were consistent and accurate ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref94">8</reflink>]). The first author engaged in member-checking to ensure the participants agreed with the findings. Study participants could review the transcripts and respond with any changes or modifications. Peer debriefing between the first and second authors was used to check the research process. Finally, we included positionality statements to ensure readers understand the biases we bring to and throughout the research process ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref95">7</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-20">Findings</hd> <p>This study was designed to answer the research question: How do school leaders' beliefs, actions, and reflections lead to equitable access to AP for traditionally underrepresented students? The conceptual framework guided the findings and focused on personal experiences, commitments, and advocacy. While both districts implement equity-focused AP programming, different contexts have impacted their practices to serve traditionally underrepresented students. These findings intend to reflect the participants using their own words.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-21">Personal Experiences and Commitments</hd> <p>School leaders in both districts exhibited an orientation for social justice leadership based on evidence of equity-driven beliefs, personal experiences related to self or family, and a passion for working with diverse students and families. Both school districts explicitly referenced equity and equity work in district goals regarding student achievement. School leaders in both Midland and River Falls referenced the availability of data and analysis of data using an equity lens at both the district and school levels.</p> <p>All 29 participants in both school districts could discuss their conceptions of equity related to their specific work in schools. Many of the study participants shared stories of personal or family experiences that shaped their leadership beliefs and influenced their actions. In Midland, five of the 14 study participants talked at length about how their lived experiences influenced their understandings of race, racism, and the role schools can play in either continuing or dismantling systems of oppression. Two of the Midland participants have biracial children and have witnessed micro- and macro-aggressions faced by their children in schools. Midland AP Teacher Brown identifies as white, is married to a Black man, and has biracial children. Brown said that she is motivated to bring topics of race, inequality, racism, and social justice to her students, particularly her white students: "If we don't bring these things to the students, particularly to white middle or upper-middle class students, they can just go through life thinking that there aren't really any problems because they haven't experienced them."</p> <p>In River Falls, eight of the 15 study participants grew up in the community, six of the 15 participants identified as minoritized, and three of the school leaders attended a historically Black college or university. These participant characteristics influenced their personal experiences or their families' experiences. River Falls Director Dr. Clark, who identifies as a Black woman, grew up in River Falls, and her own experiences influence why she centers the needs of parents and families who often go unnoticed:</p> <p>When I lead, I always think about, you know, not just the typical parents we're gonna hear from all the time. That doesn't mean they don't value education. It means that we just don't hear from them because they are probably doing something else. Cause that was my mom. My family didn't know. They didn't have transportation to get to my school. They didn't even know where it was.</p> <p>[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref96">10</reflink>] asserted that many school leaders "feel committed and called to this work" (p. 140). Much of the data revealed a passion for serving traditionally underrepresented students. Participants shared their commitment to ensuring the diverse students they serve have high-quality educational opportunities and access to rigorous coursework in their AP programs. Retired Midland Principal Dr. Kennedy shared that working with diverse populations of students was a passion, and his belief that all students could achieve at high levels was a consistent theme in his leadership beliefs and actions at his school. Dr. Kennedy said, "I believe strongly that all students should have access [to rigorous coursework], and all students can do it." Midland School Counselor Lee said, "Everybody is highly capable in different ways. Find the area in AP that fits your passion." School leaders exhibited characteristics of social justice leadership through their equity-focused beliefs, personal experiences, and passion for serving students.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-22">Advocacy</hd> <p>Advocacy is one way of engaging in social justice leadership and can take many forms ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref97">10</reflink>]). The data revealed many strategies school leaders in both districts used to create, develop, and sustain an equity-focused AP program. School leaders in Midland and River Falls built a culture for AP by setting and monitoring goals around their AP programs and providing necessary professional development for teachers. Decisions to increase equity of access and outcomes in AP courses for traditionally underrepresented students by removing barriers and communicating with students and families about the opportunities provided by participation in AP. Advocacy was demonstrated by participants in a myriad of leadership roles on behalf of the school's focus on creating and sustaining an equity-focused AP program.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-23">Building the Culture</hd> <p>Leaders in both districts set clear expectations regarding AP access for traditionally underrepresented students. Removing barriers for student access to AP programming was vital to the shift. Retired Midland Principal Dr. Kennedy started the AP program in 1981 in one of the district's high schools, and other school leaders adopted the program over time. Three study participants referenced explicit building goals around the AP program and high expectations for all students as two important variables in creating and developing their equity-focused AP program. Midland AP Teacher Thompson explained his school's approach:</p> <p>Our principal would tell all 9th graders at orientation that his goal was that every one of these kids should try to take an AP course. If they are going to community college, if they are going to work, it didn't matter, it was his goal. It became part of our school's DNA.</p> <p>The superintendent of River Falls created a requirement that every student in high school take at least one advanced course, International Baccalaureate (IB), career and technical education (CTE), or Project Lead the Way (PLTW). AP Coordinator Dr. Robinson explained this district priority, "The superintendent's priorities include AP. We must increase the number of test-takers and ensure access for all students, especially our students of color." Schools must follow this policy, which has led to increased resources and district support for AP programming. AP coordinators from different high schools meet quarterly to receive consistent information, analyze AP program data, and share strategies for supporting their AP programs. Within the district's stated goal of taking advanced coursework, individual high schools have set their own goals around AP. One school specifically included AP data in the annual School Improvement Plan (SIP). AP Coordinator Dr. Robinson discussed this intentional move:</p> <p>We created an AP teacher leadership team, and we analyzed and evaluated data from our AP program over a three-year period. We looked at all the trend data and came up with specific goals: two SMART goals and two learning goals. We presented a timeline and plan of action needed to reach those goals.</p> <p>River Falls Principal Green said, "We set a school goal. We want all our students to take at least three AP classes during their time at our school." River Falls Principal King echoed those sentiments and explained, "We package ourselves as a college preparatory school. I think our AP courses prepare students for that freshman year of college." These explicit expectations create a culture of equitable access to rigorous coursework for all students and teachers.</p> <p>Access to coursework is a vital step but leaders also need to ensure that teachers have the capacity to support a range of students in finding success in AP coursework. In Midland, leaders ensured every AP teacher was certified through summer training. The College Board works with local school districts or institutions of higher learning to offer the 4-day training in different regions throughout the United States. Midland partnered with the College Board to host summer training in their district. AP Coordinator Anderson explained, "All of our AP teachers go to the workshops. It's very strongly encouraged, and the district pays for the training." In River Falls, the district provides ongoing professional development for AP teachers. First, AP teachers must complete a College Board certification training paid for by the district. Following the initial certification to teach the AP course, AP teachers have additional paid opportunities to grow professionally and collaborate with other AP teachers in River Falls. Professional development for AP teachers has included a book study and networking meetings with other AP teachers. These networking meetings have, in some cases, facilitated the development of informal professional learning communities for AP teachers. River Falls AP Teacher Nelson explained, "We break out into subject area groups to work and collaborate. The four of us teaching my AP course really kept in regular touch throughout the year and saved each other a lot of time." Building the AP teachers' capacity is important to ensure students are in classrooms with prepared and trained teachers who can support students in their learning.</p> <p>In both districts, these coordinated efforts led to measurable increases in AP participation in traditionally underrepresented students. For instance, River Falls reported that Black and Latinx students enrolling in AP courses increased by over 75% between 2018 and 2023. Similarly, Midland saw significant growth in enrollment in gateway AP courses like AP Human Geography and AP Psychology, with participation doubling in some schools following intentional outreach and policy changes. While this study did not examine pass rates, these enrollment trends suggest that equity-focused leadership actions expanded the reach of AP programming to a broader and more diverse group of students. With our focus on access to AP coursework rather than pass rates on AP exams, we recognize that academic outcomes are a critical aspect of equity. At the same time, we contend that access itself is an essential step toward closing opportunity gaps for historically underrepresented students. Participation in AP courses, regardless of exam score, provides exposure to rigorous curricula, fosters college-ready academic behaviors, and builds confidence in students' ability to succeed in challenging academic environments ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref98">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref99">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref100">18</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref101">30</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-24">Decision-Making for Equity</hd> <p>Access to AP courses, without socially constructed barriers, is evident in both districts. Each high school in Midland offers between 15 and 25 AP courses, and all students can enroll in an AP course. There are requirements related to class grades, minimum GPA, or teacher recommendation. The Midland high schools removed those traditional barriers to access. Few prerequisites exist, except in mathematics and world language. For example, students must take pre-calculus before AP Calculus and Spanish 3 before taking AP Spanish Language and Culture. The prerequisites for those content areas exist only to ensure students have the content knowledge and skills required for success at the next level.</p> <p>Midland Principal Moore explained how his school uses AP courses to encourage high levels of participation by a diverse group of students: "We use AP Human Geography, AP Environmental Science, and AP Psychology as access points to AP for our 9<sups>th</sups> and 10<sups>th</sups> graders." The intentional use of some AP courses as "gateway" AP courses helps the AP teachers in those courses better prepare to address student needs, knowing that a range of students will be taking the course. Access to AP courses is one component, but AP exam costs can also be a barrier. Midland schools removed that barrier for students who qualify for free or reduced-price lunch. Students who qualify using federal guidelines do not have to pay fees to take an AP exam.</p> <p>Access to AP coursework is an important characteristic of an equity-focused program, but equity of outcomes also needs to be monitored. Eight of the 14 participants in Midland shared examples of intentional moves made to support traditionally underrepresented students in the AP classroom. Students need support to access rigorous coursework, especially if they are discrepant from their peers in academic skills. Two school leaders, an assistant principal and an AP coordinator in two different Midland high schools, referenced the decision to intentionally schedule minoritized students in class sections together to create a sense of belonging. Assistant Principal Jackson discussed her rationale for this specific leadership action:</p> <p>I ran a bunch of reports and found where there were classes with fewer students of color represented. I asked the counselors to intentionally group students of color together in some sections. I really struggled with that decision because if I pull out of all our students of color from one section and put them in another, the white students don't see any students of color in that AP section. But that was a sacrifice I was willing to make to give students of color a cohort of support and sense of belonging in that room.</p> <p>In River Falls, school leaders in some schools adopted Pre-AP coursework for all 9<sups>th</sups> and 10<sups>th</sups> graders. Pre-AP coursework is built with AP expectations in mind. It serves as a form of vertical alignment in both English/Language Arts and mathematics to prepare students with academic skills to better meet the demands of AP. River Falls also offers a Summer Bridge program for students new to AP. Students could create a sense of community with other students before class starts and get a head start on understanding the AP program. Students make college visits and deepen their understanding of how taking AP courses and exams in high school can support their post-secondary goals. Both intentional moves may better prepare traditionally underrepresented students for success in AP courses.</p> <p>A strategy used in Midland to support equity of outcomes is implementing a skills class for AP students. An AP teacher teaches this non-content-specific elective course. The design of the course is to provide traditionally underrepresented students with additional academic and social-emotional support as they take their first AP course. Students are identified for the class in 9<sups>th</sups> or 10<sups>th</sups> grades and enrolled in one or more AP courses. Students receive support in literacy, test-taking, and executive functioning skills. AP Teacher Smith explained the design of these skills courses as one in which students "build word walls, write essays, learn to take Cornell notes, learn to annotate readings, and how to summarize and synthesize complex texts." These skills courses provided explicit instruction for AP success.</p> <p>Using scaffolds to support student learning was a common thread in both districts. Midland and River Falls participants shared the importance of providing academic support to students in the AP classroom. Midland AP Teacher Miller said, "I know I do more scaffolding on assignments than I used to do. I'm very much the opposite of sink or swim." Midland AP Teacher Brown explained that she makes herself available to help and helps students connect with others in the class. She shared why she connects students, "A lot of my students do not have cars they can jump into and meet for a study group. They must work or they have other responsibilities." Midland Assistant Principal Jackson taught AP courses before becoming a school administrator and believes strongly in providing additional support to minoritized students in AP courses. Jackson's explanation of intentional supports is representative of comments made by their Midland colleagues:</p> <p>Make sure teachers are intentional about connecting with students of color in the classroom. Helping them form study groups. For example, if kids are using CliffsNotes, then take time to show students that trick. Show them they can read the real text and CliffsNotes because this is a skill that is learned. It's not cheating. You are teaching these students to use resources. It's kind of giving them a wink and a nudge. Showing them the system and how to play it because we know they are capable. They are no less capable than these other kids. It's just some have a lot of privilege they come into school with.</p> <p>AP Teachers in River Falls provided clear evidence of leadership actions taken in the classroom to ensure all students have access to the rigorous coursework. All six River Falls AP Teachers shared specific examples of scaffolding in the AP classroom to help students get the skills needed to be successful in the course and on the AP exam. None of the teachers in this study reported being told by their building administrators to make these adjustments to their practice. However, they did so anyway because they acted on their personal beliefs around equity in AP.</p> <p>School leaders also made decisions to support students in the AP classroom. The six study participants teaching AP classes shared several strategies to scaffold student learning. River Falls AP Teacher Wright explained his approach, "We start really slow, right? I mean, we start by analyzing one document at a time." Scaffolds for AP students include supporting students with executive functioning skills like time management and organization. Other study participants referenced a gradual release of responsibility to help students build academic skills and access complex texts and vocabulary. Participating AP teachers said they provided visual examples, graphic organizers, and other opportunities to practice skills necessary for success in the AP course and on the exam. River Falls AP Teacher Baker explained one support:</p> <p>I'm a totally visual person. I use lots of examples and take work from prior years and show them samples. Sometimes I have kids coming to me with a 30-page article and they say I can't read 30 pages. I tell them it's ok. Let's break it down. I show them how to read a scholarly article and pull out important information.</p> <p>River Falls AP Teacher Grant admits that providing so many scaffolds to students is something she thinks about carefully. Grant said, "It's a really tricky tightrope to walk because you want to maintain these high standards and prepare them for the real world. You also want to support, differentiate, and scaffold everything." Another River Falls AP teacher discussed how she introduces students to researchers of color and highlights issues that often challenge urban communities, like a lack of mental healthcare and providers of color. These intentional moves to make the curriculum more representative of diverse identities and authentic to minoritized students demonstrate a strategy used by school leaders to make decisions using an equity lens.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-25">Communication</hd> <p>[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref102">10</reflink>] argues that advocacy is purposeful communication with staff, students, families, and the community. Purposeful communication around the equity-focused AP programs was demonstrated in the data from both districts. Data revealed different ways school leaders in Midland and River Falls engaged with students and families about the AP program in the schools. Information about the AP program is accessible on both district and school websites. District websites tend to provide a general, high-level overview of the AP program. Individual school websites provide students and families with information about their specific AP program, course offerings, exam registration, and the benefits of taking AP courses and exams. The school leaders in both districts connect with students and families to present information about the benefits of AP beyond the information shared on the school or district website.</p> <p>Both districts demonstrated clear methods of purposeful communication about AP to students and families. Details of the AP program are shared with students and families in both districts through back-to-school events and open house nights. In River Falls, school leaders inform families during 9th-grade orientation sessions at each high school. Most schools offer Back to School or Open House nights and host breakout sessions for parents and caregivers to provide information and answer questions about AP. In both districts, students learn about AP during the course registration process for the next school year. The school counselor plays a vital role in this process. All students meet with a school counselor to formally register for classes and create a course plan, providing a more personalized opportunity for students to learn about AP.</p> <p>Midland and River Falls schools utilized intentional strategies to familiarize students with the AP program. Midland uses a unique strategy to help students experience AP. After AP exams conclude in the middle of May, AP teachers set up a rotation in their content area and visit classes to highlight their AP course. For example, the AP Economics teacher primarily serves seniors in high school, so the teacher attends social studies courses offered to juniors and spends a class period sharing more about the class. Midland School Counselor, Lee explained the benefits of this intentional move:</p> <p>Kids will come in [to the counseling office] and be like this teacher came into our class today and did you know they do this and this and that in AP US History? Am I signed up for that? Can I get into that class? I say, absolutely you can. I mean, our numbers could change as much as an entire section from that experience. It is a very organic process.</p> <p>Another creative strategy was found at a high school in River Falls. This school started offering an "AP Rush Week" before starting the course registration process. This experience occurs during the school day, so all students can participate. AP teachers provide mini sessions about their AP courses so students can learn more before registering. AP Teacher Grant said, "Students can come and see the types of work and talk to AP students currently taking the course. Our goal is to pull back the curtain as much as possible so that all students can see what it means."</p> <p>Another River Falls high school hosts an "AP Showcase" event annually. This evening event invites students and families to come to the school and meet different AP teachers and learn about the courses. Some AP teachers give short presentations, some make career connections to their AP course, and others show student work samples. Principal Green shared that the "AP Showcase" event generates much excitement around the AP program and is beneficial in helping more students and families learn about AP.</p> <p>River Falls has also developed a program called "AP Ambassadors." AP teachers recommend that students from each AP course become AP ambassadors. These ambassadors become representatives for different AP courses in the program. The AP coordinator in the school holds focus groups with the student ambassadors to learn more about strengths and areas for improvement in AP. This centers on the student's voice and honors the lived experiences of the students in AP classrooms while providing the AP coordinator with information on developing a stronger, equity-focused AP program for students.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-26">Discussion</hd> <p>In this study, DeMatthews' ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref103">10</reflink>]) framework supported investigating how school leaders' beliefs, actions, and reflections lead to meaningful access to AP for traditionally underrepresented students. Participants in a variety of leadership roles were able to articulate their understanding of equity in the school's AP program. There was enough evidence from the data to indicate that participants aligned with DeMatthews' ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref104">10</reflink>]) facets of social justice leadership regarding personal experiences, commitments, and advocacy.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-27">Personal Experiences and Commitments</hd> <p>According to much of the research on social justice leadership, a social justice orientation on the part of the school leader is a necessary foundation ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref105">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref106">49</reflink>]). In this study, the school leaders articulated their beliefs about social justice and described personal experiences that shaped their understanding of it. Throughout the interviews, terms such as bias, privilege, race, racism, social justice, and equity were frequently used when describing personal experiences, work-related experiences, and the school or district's current vision and goals. While this study primarily focused on issues of race, other identities were discussed by the school leaders, along with a consideration for socioeconomic status and language. Participants intentionally grew their understanding of social justice and spoke their personal beliefs about actions required for their school or district to become more equitable.</p> <p>Previous research shows that teacher beliefs about traditionally underrepresented students impact student learning experiences ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref107">50</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref108">55</reflink>]). In this study, all 10 AP teachers interviewed shared asset-based views about the diverse students in their classrooms. AP Teacher Wright expressed his passion for the work, "I am pretty committed to this, and I want them to pass the exam. I always want them to have an experience that would be the same as a suburban experience." This finding aligns with previous research that teachers' beliefs about their students influenced their relationships with students, instructional decisions, and practices used in the classroom ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref109">50</reflink>]). Teachers need to believe that all students can learn at high levels to close opportunity gaps ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref110">55</reflink>]). In this study, AP teachers provided evidence of social justice beliefs about teaching traditionally underrepresented students.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-28">Advocacy</hd> <p>School leaders in this study engaged in social justice leadership actions. All 29 leaders in this study engaged in different social justice leadership actions related to their school or district's equity-focused AP program. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref111">12</reflink>] argued that school leaders must be change agents for equitable AP programs and more socially just schools for traditionally underrepresented students. School leaders in both districts expressed clear visions around their AP programs and engaged in purposeful communication to share that vision with staff, students, and families. This work is vital given structural inequities in AP course access. For example, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref112">18</reflink>] found that schools serving poverty-impacted students offered fewer AP courses than schools in wealthier communities, underscoring the need for advocacy and equity-minded leadership to expand opportunities in underserved schools.</p> <p>Leaders in both school districts ensured students had access to the AP program by removing traditional barriers such as GPA requirements, arbitrary prerequisites, and teacher or counselor recommendation forms ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref113">38</reflink>]). The financial barrier to taking the AP exam was removed as both districts allocated funding to enable students who qualify for free or reduced-priced lunch to take exams at no cost (Walker & Pearsall, 2012). School counselors made up three of the study's participants. The school counselors in this study expressed an equity-based school counseling approach to close opportunity gaps for traditionally underrepresented students in their AP programs ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref114">12</reflink>]). School counselors actively shared information about the AP program with all students by giving class presentations and engaging students in one-on-one conversations for course planning.</p> <p>The literature indicates that once enrolled in an AP course, traditionally underrepresented students face additional barriers to success ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref115">38</reflink>]). Equity of access to AP courses does not in and of itself lead to equity of outcomes. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref116">49</reflink>] argued that social justice leaders must improve "the core learning context" for students by ensuring that students receive a high-quality education from teachers who have the knowledge, skills, and desire to reach <emph>all</emph> students (p. 49). Both school districts developed a skills class for students to take concurrently with one or more AP courses. Historically underrepresented students are identified for the course and receive additional academic support to better prepare them for success in the class and on the AP exam.</p> <p>Literature also shows that some AP teachers do a better job of preparing students for success on the AP exam than others ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref117">18</reflink>]). The research highlighted that some students' AP teachers had been assigned to teach AP courses but had not received proper training from the College Board or did not have the proper credentials to teach the course ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref118">18</reflink>]). In this study, it was revealed that school leaders from both districts required all AP teachers to be certified through the 4-day summer institutes provided by the College Board. The districts covered professional development costs, demonstrating the school leaders' value high-quality training for educators in their AP program. Resources are allocated to ensure teachers are certified and prepared to teach AP courses.</p> <p>According to [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref119">12</reflink>], one strategy to create a more equity-driven AP program is to encourage a <emph>teaching-as-coaching</emph> mentality in AP classrooms. AP teachers in this study shared various ways to provide scaffolds for students to access a rigorous curriculum. Teachers discussed using graphic organizers, breaking down complex tasks, using visuals, sharing student exemplars, and modeling their thinking to differentiate instruction.</p> <p>The data gathered were consistent with the literature on social justice leadership actions. Examples of advocacy should be seen not just through the actions of one school leader but through the leadership actions resulting from a school leader's vision for a socially just school ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref120">49</reflink>]). Teacher leaders, counselors, and AP coordinators can take these leadership actions. In this study, school leaders engaged in decision-making for equity by setting goals, building the culture, ensuring access, communicating with students and families, building the capacity of teachers, and scaffolding student learning.</p> <p>The purpose of this study was to give voice to school leaders in two different urban school districts with equity-focused AP programs. To achieve this purpose, we designed the study based on relevant literature on AP programming and social justice leadership to achieve this purpose. The findings were aligned with current research on social justice leadership, specifically DeMatthews' ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref121">10</reflink>]) framework for Community Engaged Leadership for Social Justice.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-29">Limitations and Future Research</hd> <p>There are several limitations of the study. This study was limited to two urban school districts in the Midwest. This study did not represent equity-focused AP programs in rural or suburban areas or districts outside the Midwest. While these findings provide insight into equity-focused AP programs in the districts studied, they are not intended for statistical generalization; instead, they offer guidance for understanding similar contexts. The sample size of 29 school leaders included individuals occupying many roles: central office staff, principal, assistant principal, school counselor, AP coordinator, and AP teacher. While purposeful sampling techniques were employed, a larger sample size would support new ways of thinking about the research question. A study specific to one type of school leadership role might yield different findings.</p> <p>As a narrative study, the research was limited to the narrative descriptions of participants' lived experiences. Data collected were limited to participants' responses to the interview questions and document analysis of publicly available documents. The research design and primary use of interviews, focus groups, and document analyses are just three methods available to understand school leaders' beliefs, actions, and reflections. It is important to note that several recent studies, including [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref122">37</reflink>] and [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref123">36</reflink>], have examined both access and performance outcomes in AP programming. Notably, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref124">36</reflink>] found that increased access did not always correspond with reduced disparities in exam scores. Though we did not examine AP exam results in this study, our findings contribute to this conversation by highlighting the leadership practices that successfully broadened participation. Future work should investigate whether and how such access translates into improved performance outcomes by analyzing AP exam pass rates for traditionally underrepresented test takers in these districts. Analysis of these data points was outside the scope of this study.</p> <p>An important limitation related to the data collected was the first author's role as a practicing instructional coach and AP coordinator in an urban high school, which introduced researcher bias. We attempted to account for this bias by using conceptual frameworks to bracket the first author's judgments during the coding process. While we did not know any study participants, the first author shared the same job title and duties as some participants. This familiarity with AP programs may have influenced how questions were asked and answered.</p> <p>Finally, while this study focused on the beliefs and actions of school leaders implementing an equity-driven AP program, it is important to acknowledge that such efforts do not occur without context. In the current political climate, school leaders may face resistance or hostility at the local or state level from broader forces. Although these political dynamics were beyond the scope of this study—and not directly observable at the time of data collection—they represent a very real barrier to implementation. Future research could examine how external political pressures influence social justice leadership.</p> <hd id="AN0193364112-30">Implications for School Leaders</hd> <p>School leaders should be cautioned that more than transforming the policies and practices of schools regarding access to AP courses is needed to create equitable learning environments for traditionally underrepresented students. Social justice leadership requires constant situational awareness to identify barriers to implementing the vision for equity in the AP program. School leaders must continuously tackle deficit-based approaches with adults serving students in the school. Leaders would be best served using an assets-based framework such as Moll et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref125">28</reflink>]) Funds of Knowledge approach or Yosso's ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref126">54</reflink>]) Community Cultural Wealth to disrupt and transform existing deficit-based approaches in schools. This work is significant for AP teachers who serve diverse learners in the classroom. AP teachers must adopt the vision of an equity-focused AP program in which all students can access rigorous courses. Leaders can build the capacity of teachers to serve a wide range of student abilities by providing support with resources and time for collaboration with others. AP teachers can engage in professional development about scaffolding and differentiation.</p> <p>School leaders should engage in purposeful leadership actions in the school community to develop and sustain an equity-focused AP program. This study referenced several intentional actions leaders took to develop and sustain an equity-focused AP program. One action is to review student schedules and look for opportunities for students to challenge themselves with one or more AP courses. Leaders can review class sections to ensure a balance of minoritized students in each class. If there is an imbalance, leaders can intentionally group students to create a sense of belonging. Considering the significant role played by school counselors in enrolling in AP courses, school leaders might consider redesigning the course registration process. School counselors may need intentional training on the school's philosophy regarding enrollment in the AP program. This could include equity training designed to address issues of bias and information to deepen their knowledge of different AP courses offered at the school. Another option is student-centered scheduling for minoritized students to ensure equity of access to the AP program without potential bias from school counselors.</p> <p>School leaders should consider the power of creating support structures for traditionally underrepresented students in AP. The leaders set the vision and philosophy around the school's AP program by removing prerequisite courses or test-taking barriers. An investment in the development of core courses that students take prior to AP would better prepare students with the academic skills needed for success in AP. This study also demonstrated the benefits of a skills course designed for students new to AP or needing extra support to fill in gaps in knowledge and skills. Developing a skills course is one way to ensure that students have additional support as they take risks with college-level coursework in high school. Schools are responsible for accurately sharing information about their AP program with students, especially traditionally underrepresented students. Leaders can develop purposeful communication methods to educate stakeholders about the AP program and the opportunities provided to students.</p> <p>As shown in Table 2, these recommendations emphasize that advancing equity in AP programs requires leadership at multiple levels. By addressing barriers through scheduling, counseling, teacher support, and intentional communication, school leaders can create AP programs that expand access and ensure meaningful learning opportunities for traditionally underrepresented students.</p> <p>Table 2. Implications for School Leaders to Advance Equity in AP Programs.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="left" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left">Equity Challenge</th><th align="left">Recommended Leadership Actions</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Moving beyond policy change to create equitable environments</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Practice social justice leadership through constant situational awareness of barriers</p></list-item><list-item><p>Disrupt deficit-based perspectives among staff by promoting asset-based frameworks</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Supporting AP teachers to serve diverse learners</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Provide resources and time for teacher collaboration</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td /><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Offer professional development on scaffolding and differentiation</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td /><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Foster teacher alignment with an equity-focused AP vision</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Developing and sustaining an equity-focused AP program</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Review student schedules to identify opportunities for AP enrollment</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td /><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Monitor class sections for demographic balance and adjust groups to foster belonging</p></list-item><list-item><p>Redesign the course registration process to reduce bias</p></list-item><list-item><p>Provide counselors with equity training and a deeper knowledge of AP courses</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Creating support structures for traditionally underrepresented students</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Remove unnecessary prerequisites and exam-based barriers</p></list-item><list-item><p>Strengthen core courses that prepare students for AP success</p></list-item><list-item><p>Develop supplemental skills courses to support students new to AP or needing additional support</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Communicating AP opportunities to students and families</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Share clear, accurate, and accessible information about AP programs</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td /><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Use multiple communication strategies to reach traditionally underrepresented students and their families</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0193364112-31">Conclusion</hd> <p>Public schools are expected to ensure that <emph>all students</emph> are prepared for life after high school. Schools continue to serve diverse learners, but opportunity gaps for traditionally underrepresented students persist. Some public-school districts have adopted explicit goals around equity in all facets of the school system. While AP is not the only pathway for that type of experience, the opportunities it offers students who enroll in the courses and pass the exams are measurable. When traditionally underrepresented students are denied those opportunities, there is an exponential effect when students enter college with credits earned in high school because they save money on earning a degree and earning AP in college coursework that can save them time and money. School districts concerned about the lack of equity in their AP programs can use this study as a guide for dismantling past practices to build and grow an equity-focused AP program.</p> <ref id="AN0193364112-32"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref39" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Anderson N. 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Graeber https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2541-3931 Angela Tuttle Prince https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2704-9464</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Amber M. Graeber and Angela Tuttle Prince</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Amber M. Graeber is an Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership at Drake University. Her areas of interest include social justice leadership, instructional leadership, and leading for change.</p> <p>Angela Tuttle Prince is an Associate Professor of Special Education at Iowa State University. Her areas of research include special education law and policy, with a focus on secondary transition planning and services.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref107"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref108"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref122"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref123"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref125"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref126"></nolink>
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  Data: Meaningful Access to Advanced Placement Programs
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Amber+M%2E+Graeber%22">Amber M. Graeber</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2541-3931">0000-0002-2541-3931</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Angela+Tuttle+Prince%22">Angela Tuttle Prince</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2704-9464">0000-0003-2704-9464</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Advanced+Academics%22"><i>Journal of Advanced Academics</i></searchLink>. 2026 37(2):220-250.
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  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 31
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  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
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  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Advanced+Placement+Programs%22">Advanced Placement Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Access+to+Education%22">Access to Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Equal+Education%22">Equal Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Implementation%22">Program Implementation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Urban+Schools%22">Urban Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Districts%22">School Districts</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Central+Office+Administrators%22">Central Office Administrators</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Principals%22">Principals</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Assistant+Principals%22">Assistant Principals</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Administration%22">Program Administration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Counselors%22">School Counselors</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Counselor+Attitudes%22">Counselor Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Administrator+Attitudes%22">Administrator Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Leadership%22">Leadership</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Minority+Group+Students%22">Minority Group Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Disproportionate+Representation%22">Disproportionate Representation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Beliefs%22">Beliefs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reflection%22">Reflection</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Administrator+Behavior%22">Administrator Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/1932202X251389234
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  Label: ISSN
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  Data: 1932-202X<br />2162-9536
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Rigorous academic preparation in high school is a strong predictor of postsecondary success. The College Board's Advanced Placement (AP) program allows students to earn college credit while in high school; however, disparities in equitable participation remain a persistent concern. This qualitative multiple-case study explored equity-focused AP program implementation in two urban school districts in the Midwest. From interviews with 29 school leaders, the study examined participants' beliefs, leadership practices, and reflections on equitable AP access. Findings highlight examples of community-engaged, social justice leadership that promote inclusive participation in AP coursework.
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  Data: 2026
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  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1504272
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1504272
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        Value: 10.1177/1932202X251389234
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 31
        StartPage: 220
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Advanced Placement Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Access to Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Equal Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Program Implementation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Urban Schools
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      – SubjectFull: School Districts
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      – SubjectFull: School Counselors
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
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      – SubjectFull: Administrator Attitudes
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      – SubjectFull: Leadership
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      – SubjectFull: Minority Group Students
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      – SubjectFull: High Schools
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      – TitleFull: Meaningful Access to Advanced Placement Programs
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