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Addressing Underachievement and Early School Leaving in Europe: The Role of Institutional Factors

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Title: Addressing Underachievement and Early School Leaving in Europe: The Role of Institutional Factors
Language: English
Authors: Alba García-Cid, Andrea Khalfaoui, Aitana Fernández-Villardón, Icy Fresno Anabo, Nerea Gutiérrez-Fernández, Maite Santiago-Garabieta, Dildora Sharipova, Lourdes Villardón-Gallego, Rocío García-Carrión
Source: Educational Review. 2026 78(4):586-606.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Literature Reviews, Dropout Research, Foreign Countries, Educational Attainment, Academic Persistence, Educational Environment, Underachievement, Influences, School Role, Educational Practices
Geographic Terms: Europe
DOI: 10.1080/00131911.2025.2459902
ISSN: 0013-1911
1465-3397
Abstract: This systematic review aims to analyse the existing evidence on the institutional factors that counteract underachievement and Early School Leaving (ESL) in Europe. Considering the role of context in generating optimal learning environments, a more nuanced understanding of how institutional aspects could be shaped to improve students' school outcomes is paramount. The Web of Science, SCOPUS, and PsycINFO databases were used to identify relevant papers following the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 7,049 entries were generated from the initial search and were subjected to a blind review process using the web application Rayyan, which resulted in 34 articles being included in the final review. Following a thematic analysis, it was found that adopting heterogeneous classrooms, promoting a climate of high expectations in schools, implementing critical pedagogies and an engaging, culturally sensitive curriculum, facilitating positive and dialogic interactions with adults and peers, providing tailored support and guidance services, and nurturing a culture of co-creation and equitable involvement of families and communities act as buffers against the risk of underachievement and early school leaving. These findings shed light on possible practical approaches for addressing these issues, including the implementation of Successful Educational Actions, providing targeted support for the most vulnerable, and promoting a whole-school approach to ensure that dialogues between educational communities and school staff are frequent and constructive.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1504527
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0193388979;edi01may.26;2026May05.02:20;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0193388979-1">Addressing underachievement and early school leaving in Europe: the role of institutional factors </title> <p>This systematic review aims to analyse the existing evidence on the institutional factors that counteract underachievement and Early School Leaving (ESL) in Europe. Considering the role of context in generating optimal learning environments, a more nuanced understanding of how institutional aspects could be shaped to improve students' school outcomes is paramount. The Web of Science, SCOPUS, and PsycINFO databases were used to identify relevant papers following the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 7,049 entries were generated from the initial search and were subjected to a blind review process using the web application Rayyan, which resulted in 34 articles being included in the final review. Following a thematic analysis, it was found that adopting heterogeneous classrooms, promoting a climate of high expectations in schools, implementing critical pedagogies and an engaging, culturally sensitive curriculum, facilitating positive and dialogic interactions with adults and peers, providing tailored support and guidance services, and nurturing a culture of co-creation and equitable involvement of families and communities act as buffers against the risk of underachievement and early school leaving. These findings shed light on possible practical approaches for addressing these issues, including the implementation of Successful Educational Actions, providing targeted support for the most vulnerable, and promoting a whole-school approach to ensure that dialogues between educational communities and school staff are frequent and constructive.</p> <p>Keywords: Systematic review; early school leaving; underachievement; successful educational actions; vulnerable groups</p> <p>Early School Leaving (ESL) is a significant challenge facing education systems globally, with far-reaching consequences for both individuals and society. In Europe, ESL has been associated with reduced opportunities on the labour market, poverty, health problems (European Commission, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref1">20</reflink>]), and diminished participation in political, social, and cultural activities (European Commission, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref2">18</reflink>]). It is crucial to address this issue, especially that ESL has been shown to have devastating consequences for both the individuals who do not complete their education and for society as a whole (Brown et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref3">7</reflink>]; Brunello & Paola, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref4">8</reflink>]).</p> <p>While definitions vary between countries, the concept of ESL at the EU level is defined as the percentage of young people between 18 and 24 years old who have completed, at most, lower secondary education and who are no longer engaged in education or training (European Commission, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref5">17</reflink>]). Meanwhile, underachievement is a related term which is understood as non-attainment of a number of preset goals for a particular age of students, reflected in some negative tendencies such as grade repetition, low motivation, chronic absenteeism, and learning difficulties.</p> <p>Considering the negative consequences and prevalence of ESL in Europe, the European Commission set the goal of reducing the average incidence of ESL to 10% by 2020 (European Commission, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref6">20</reflink>]). Although there has been a decline in the proportion of early leavers in the last decade and nearly reaching the EU target of 10%, this does not reflect the reality of those most affected by ESL. For instance, there are significant variations in ESL rates across different countries and regions, with Romania (16.6%), Spain (13.7%), and Germany (12.8%) being among those with the highest rates according to 2023 statistics (Eurostat, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref7">22</reflink>]). In the EU, pupils with immigrant backgrounds are also nearly twice as likely to leave school early compared to their native peers (Hippe & Jakubowski, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref8">36</reflink>]). This situation is even more concerning for Roma students, with 71% of 18- to 24-year-olds leaving school before completing upper secondary level and not pursuing further education or training (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref9">21</reflink>]). While some progress has been made in improving school outcomes and reducing underachievement in Europe, statistics show that the target of reducing low levels of reading, maths and science to less than 15% in 2020 was not reached. Indeed, based on the 2018 PISA results, the EU average showed an underachievement rate of 21.7% in reading, 22.4% in maths, and 21.6% in science (European Commission, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref10">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>When analysing underachievement and ESL, scientific research has mainly focused on individual variables, such as family background, absenteeism from school, poor school achievements, and low motivation, among others (Archambault et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref11">3</reflink>]; Fortin et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref12">25</reflink>]; Szabó, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref13">61</reflink>]). As a consequence, ESL has been mostly explained from an individual perspective, which not only provides a fragmented view but may also reinforce the "blame the victim" approach (Lee & Burkam, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref14">46</reflink>]). ESL is a complex phenomenon associated with individual, social, and organisational variables (González-Rodríguez et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref15">31</reflink>]) that aggravate or reduce the risk of ESL. In this sense, it is clear that the context in which students learn plays a crucial role in their academic development and success.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-2">The role of institutional factors in early school leaving</hd> <p>Rumberger ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref16">57</reflink>]) refers to ESL as driven by individual and/or institutional factors, where the former alludes to personal characteristics and behaviours and the latter to family, school, and community aspects. The school context presents an interesting domain for this review, considering that the characteristics and practices of educational institutions and systems play a pivotal role in students' tendency to leave or stay in school (De Witte et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref17">14</reflink>]; Rumberger, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref18">57</reflink>]). School-related institutional factors involve elements such as the educational model, pedagogical aspects, teaching practices, school infrastructure, and tutoring services, which can significantly impact student learning (De Witte et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref19">13</reflink>]; Giano et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref20">30</reflink>]; González-Rodríguez et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref21">31</reflink>]; Savvides et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref22">58</reflink>]). In fact, existing literature shows that when schools provide supportive environments that address these institutional barriers, they foster academic growth and equal opportunities for all students (Khalfaoui et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref23">42</reflink>]). Understanding the influence of context and institutional factors is essential for educational institutions to make informed decisions, implement improvement interventions, and ensure a more effective learning process for students (Sunza-Chan et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref24">60</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-3">Objectives and rationale</hd> <p>Several systematic literature reviews have been implemented on the topics of underachievement and ESL. For instance, Guerrero-Puerta and Torres ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref25">33</reflink>]) analysed extant literature on ESL from a life course perspective, highlighting the importance of life trajectories, transitions, and agency-structure interactions in understanding this phenomenon. Meanwhile, other scholars focused on specific geographical and area contexts, such as Berral-Ortiz and colleagues' ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref26">6</reflink>]) review of studies on reducing ESL in Spain and Fehérvári and Varga's ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref27">23</reflink>]) review on mentoring as a specific measure in preventing ESL. Adopting a more comprehensive approach, De Witte and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref28">13</reflink>]) conducted a systematic review examining a broad range of factors influencing ESL, including those related to students, families, schools, and communities. The review underscores the potential concern of reinforcing specific profiles of at-risk students, largely stemming from the tendency of many studies to focus on identifying personal and social characteristics that distinguish potential dropouts from graduates, while also noting that the organisation of schools remains an underexplored dimension in the existing body of research.</p> <p>To address this gap, a systematic literature review was conducted on school-related institutional factors shaping ESL. This approach is underpinned by a shift toward a systemic and contextual perspective and away from an emphasis on personal attributes. The study is framed within the Horizon Europe project "Policies and Practices based on Scientific Research for Reducing Underachievement and Early School Leaving in Europe" (SCIREARLY), and aligns with the project's aim of identifying, systematising and replicating successful and evidence-based policies and practices that have proven to reduce underachievement and ESL.</p> <p>The systematic review examined empirical literature on school-related institutional factors of underachievement and ESL in Europe over the past two decades, focusing on students in early years, primary, and secondary education. This region-specific focus was adopted to enhance the contextual relevance and impact on stakeholders of the SCIREARLY project, within which this review is framed. Considering the unique landscape of educational systems, policies, and practices within the EU, a systematic review centred on this region is also well-positioned to uncover trends and insights specific to this context. It was implemented alongside complementary analyses by other SCIREARLY consortium researchers, which explored other social determinants such as socioeconomic, gender, cultural, linguistic, socioemotional, and quality early childhood education and care factors. The findings from these parallel reviews are briefly discussed in this paper, revealing the interplay between these factors and institutional ones. Overall, the review adopts a transformative lens by focusing on the school aspects that have been shown to have a buffering effect on underachievement and ESL especially for systematically disadvantaged groups.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-4">Methods</hd> <p>This systematic literature review covers scientific literature published in peer-reviewed journals between 2003 and 2023 to examine which (and to what extent) institutional factors influence underachievement and ESL in early years, primary, and secondary education in Europe. This systematic review focuses on literature from 2003 onward due to the exponential increase in scientific production over the past 20 years, a period which coincides with significant changes in teaching and learning processes. Limiting the search to the past two decades also ensured a manageable number of publications for analysis. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref29">53</reflink>]; Rethlefsen et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref30">55</reflink>]) were used as a reference for this review to ensure rigour in the search and to enable replication (see Figure 1).</p> <p>DIAGRAM: Figure 1. PRISMA Flow diagram (generated using Haddaway et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref31">34</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-5">Identification and selection</hd> <p>The literature search was conducted between January and February 2023, focusing mainly on scientific articles published in indexed journals (Web of Science and SCOPUS) as well as those included in Education and Psychology databases (PsycINFO). The combination of these three databases, which covers the fields of education, social sciences, and educational psychology, enabled a comprehensive search of literature to be done on a complex and interdisciplinary topic such as ESL. The search routes involved combining different keywords on institutional aspects connected with underachievement and ESL (Table 1) using the Boolean operator "AND" for all the combinations. This resulted in a total of 624 searches (208 for each database). These terms were pre-selected by the wider consortium of SCIREARLY project researchers based on previous knowledge of the topic, after which a preliminary search was carried out to test the appropriateness of the terms and their combinations. Table 1 reflects the refined list of terms used for the systematic literature review.</p> <p>Table 1. Search terms</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td><p>General keywords</p></td><td><p>Keywords related to institutional factors</p></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><p>Underachievement Academic achievement Early school leaving School dropout School disengagement</p></td><td><p>Ratio Teacher* quality School leadership Calendar Teaching method* School facilities Streaming Single sex schooling Peers Educational policies Assessment Resources Decision making level School autonomy Successful educational action*</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>The web application Rayyan (Ouzzani et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref32">52</reflink>]) was used to collate the articles and implement a blind review process. The inclusion and exclusion criteria used are outlined in Table 2.</p> <p>Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td><p>Inclusion criteria</p></td><td><p>Exclusion criteria</p></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Focus on students in primary and secondary education</p></list-item><list-item><p>Focus on institutional elements as a social determinant of underachievement and/or ESL and their impact</p></list-item><list-item><p>Publications are high-quality papers published in peer-reviewed journals, scientific books, policy documents, research reports, and other grey literature from relevant public and private institutions</p></list-item><list-item><p>Published in 2003 or later</p></list-item><list-item><p>Empirical studies conducted in the context of EU Member States (and the UK)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Pertaining to relevant disciplines/fields (education, psychology, sociology, economics, linguistics)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Literature reported in English</p></list-item></list></td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Pertaining to studies conducted with students outside of early years and compulsory schooling contexts</p></list-item><list-item><p>Unpublished research or literature</p></list-item><list-item><p>Published before 2003</p></list-item><list-item><p>Tackling the social determinant in isolation without a link to the impact on underachievement and ESL</p></list-item><list-item><p>Studies conducted outside the context of the EU and the UK</p></list-item><list-item><p>Publications with no empirical data</p></list-item><list-item><p>Publication is not in English</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0193388979-6">Synthesis</hd> <p>Key information from the eligible articles were extracted, such as metadata and study characteristics (see Table 3). These details and the key findings are outlined in tabular format. Thematic analysis (Clarke & Braun, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref33">9</reflink>]) was implemented to identify the institutional features that have been shown to increase or decrease the likelihood of students leaving school early as well as the mechanisms through which they operate.</p> <p>Table 3. Data extracted from the articles.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td><p>Metadata</p></td><td><p>Characteristics of the studies</p></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><p>Author(s) Type of source Date of publication Reference URL Date Accessed</p></td><td><p>Participants/population Objective of the study Method Type of study Potential Solutions/Buffering Aspects</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0193388979-7">Results</hd> <p>The initial search of the Web of Science, SCOPUS, and PsycINFO databases yielded 7,049 entries, of which 2,074 duplicates were removed (Figure 1). A total of 4,975 papers underwent screening, whereby the articles' titles and abstracts were blind reviewed by two researchers using the inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table 2). For those articles with disagreements, a third reviewer was involved. This process resulted in 548 entries, 512 of which had retrievable full texts. They were then screened for eligibility by evaluating the relevance of the study to the scope of the review and applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria. At this stage, descriptive data were also extracted such as the article's general information and study characteristics. A total of 478 papers were excluded, thereby narrowing down the papers for analysis to 34 articles (Table 4).</p> <p>Table 4. Summary of the studies included (<emph>n</emph> = 34).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td><p>Authors (Year)</p></td><td><p>Country</p></td><td><p>Participants</p></td><td><p>Research design</p></td><td><p>Key findings</p></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><p>Ahola and Kivelä (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr1">2007</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Finland</p></td><td><p>124 secondary students</p></td><td><p>Mixed methods</p></td><td><p>Effective school guidance and counselling should adapt to the needs of the young people.; Redefining "at-risk" students and shifting the blame is a necessary prerequisite to guarantee inclusive education</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Alvarez-Roldan et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr2">2018</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Spain</p></td><td><p>63 high school students and teachers (38% Roma)</p></td><td><p>Mixed methods</p></td><td><p>Grade retention, compensatory or diversity programmes and learning gaps are linked to dropout among Roma students at risk of social exclusion or with special educational needs</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Aubert et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">2017</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Spain</p></td><td><p>3 teachers, 2 mothers, 4 children, and 3 classrooms catering to learners aged 3–5</p></td><td><p>Qualitative</p></td><td><p>Higher levels of cognitive development and the promotion of positive social and emotional development are associated with mixed-ability groups such as Interactive Groups</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Bayón-Calvo et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr5">2020</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Spain</p></td><td><p>Comparison of educational policies and prevalence of student drop-out between regions</p></td><td><p>Mixed methods</p></td><td><p>Educational policies that foster equity are associated with lower ESL rates, where inequalities are confronted by specific measures of intervention for disadvantaged students</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Brown et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr7">2022</xref>)</p></td><td><p>United Kingdom</p></td><td><p>110 young students at risk of ESL (12–16 years old) and educators, tutors, etc. across 11 educational settings</p></td><td><p>Qualitative</p></td><td><p>An early individualised and tailored institutional support, alternative educational environments and reduced class size are more beneficial to at-risk learners and due to the complexity of issues that students at risk of ESL face</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Cockerill et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr10">2021</xref>)</p></td><td><p>England (UK)</p></td><td><p>30 primary schools</p></td><td><p>Qualitative</p></td><td><p>Non-negotiable expectations about performance of all learners and adults, analysis and accountability of educational provision, professional improvement that celebrates innovation, culture of shared accountability for student achievement, and familial support and engagement are identified as key drivers of inclusive education for at-risk students</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Cudworth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr11">2008</xref>)</p></td><td><p>United Kingdom</p></td><td><p>6 primary teachers in a school with a significant proportion of Gypsy/Traveller children</p></td><td><p>Qualitative</p></td><td><p>An inflexible curriculum negatively affects Roma students' achievement; The marketisation of school results has a detrimental effect on the provision of inclusive education for all children; Establishment of positive relationships with parents and the removal of the emphasis on performance data is one way to enhance educational engagement</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>de Castro and Pereira (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr12">2019</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Portugal</p></td><td><p>305 8th grade students (average age: 14 years old)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Promotion of the quality of student-teacher relationships promotes a sense of security, and facilitates the learning process; Additional (attachment) figures may become crucial in the lives of at-risk students and reduce drop out, especially in young people with insecure attachment representations</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Díez-Palomar et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr15">2020</xref></p></td><td><p>Italy, United Kingdom</p></td><td><p>418 children aged 7–11</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Altering the educational context, such as by implementing successful strategies like Interactive Groups and Dialogic Literary Gatherings, can positively shift students' attitudes towards learning.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Duffy and Elwood (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr16">2013</xref>)</p></td><td><p>United Kingdom</p></td><td><p>Senior educational staff, governors, teachers, and Year 10–13 students from 18 educational institutions</p></td><td><p>Qualitative</p></td><td><p>The classroom environment, including student-teacher relationships, peer interactions, and the pedagogical methods employed, are crucial factors in understanding student engagement</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Frehill and Dunsmuir (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr26">2015</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Ireland</p></td><td><p>37 Traveller and 41 non-Traveller students from three secondary schools</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>The promotion of a sense of belonging in schools reduces absenteeism among traveller students in secondary school</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Gasser et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr29">2018</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Switzerland</p></td><td><p>1,209 upper elementary grade students from 5th to 6<sup>th</sup> grade (11–12 years old)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>High emotional support from teachers protects students with high academic disengagement from developing negative perceptions of teacher justice</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Gómez-González et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr32">2022</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Spain</p></td><td><p>Family members and teachers in 8 elementary schools with minority students and that have implemented Family Education in at least 2 years</p></td><td><p>Mixed methods</p></td><td><p>Family Education is increasing minority families' educational expectations of their children's education; Three elements have been identified as facilitators: (1) the co-creation of a high expectations climate in the schools; (2) the improvement of family members' academic skills; and (3) the generation of new role models</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Hardoy and Schøne (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr35">2013</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Norway</p></td><td><p>277,233 students (All students enrolled in secondary school, 1996–2003)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>The promotion of peer quality relationships and social interaction emerges as a protective factor against ESL; The results show that the concentration of immigrants has a positive impact on the dropout likelihood of natives; The preferred estimate suggests that a 10 percent increase in the number of immigrants leads to a 3 percent increase in the dropout rate of natives</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Hodgson and Spours (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr37">2014</xref>)</p></td><td><p>United Kingdom</p></td><td><p>2,400 students (14–16 years old)</p></td><td><p>Mixed methods</p></td><td><p>Encouraging an explicit focus on building progression skills into the curriculum; Rebuilding collaboration between all schools, employers, higher education and wider stakeholders; Making mixed routes more available post-16; Expanding local high-profile apprenticeships prevent early school leaving</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Högberg and Lindgren (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr39">2023</xref>)</p></td><td><p>European Union</p></td><td><p>800,000 students (15 years old)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Students' sense of belonging fosters school engagement; Intense and high-stakes testing can have negative effects on school-related wellbeing, especially among marginalised pupils</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Holen et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr38">2020</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Norway</p></td><td><p>63,131 students, (15–16 years old; more than 60% boys)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Providing intensive training has mixed results, placing some students at greater risk of dropping out. Short-time interventions are not sustainable; The schools need time to both explore measures that suit their needs and culture; Measures recommended by the authorities should be research-based to avoid spending time and resources on implementing interventions that have no effect, or that can even be harmful</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Jerrim et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr40">2022</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Spain</p></td><td><p>102,534 students (15 years old)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Grade retention designed as a pure repetition of a given academic year (without providing additional materials or resources) does not leverage repeaters' achievement Spain's education laws seem to be harming students born late in the year, to the extent that they are more likely to repeat a grade; Changing the starting date may seem a potential solution</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Kerekes et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr41">2017</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Romania</p></td><td><p>1,280 students (13–17 years old)</p></td><td><p>Mixed methods</p></td><td><p>Five factors have been identified to have statistically important influence on continuing education: parents, education, the age, the number of siblings, the school performance, computer skills</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Lambrev (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr43">2015</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Romania</p></td><td><p>10 participants (7 teachers, 2 principals, and 1 vice-principal), 20 Roma (2 students and 18 adults – family members, community leaders, and NGO staff; 15–45 years old)</p></td><td><p>Qualitative</p></td><td><p>School segregation, imposition of mainstream curriculum and neglect of educational needs appear as risk factors of ESL</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Lasarte et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr44">2020</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Spain</p></td><td><p> 1,468 students (51% girls; 49% boys), 12–17 years old</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Students' perceived support from their social environment and academic performance influence their level of school engagement; Teachers and families should strive to offer social support to students as a means of strengthening perceived academic self-efficacy</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Lavrijsen and Nicaise (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr45">2015</xref>)</p></td><td><p>27 European countries</p></td><td><p>141,178 respondents (20–30 years old)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>The design of the educational system (tracking age, extent of vocational education) impacts on social distribution of school dropout risk; A large vocational sector in upper secondary education functions seems to act as a safety net against dropout</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Longás-Mayayo et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr47">2021</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Spain</p></td><td><p>2,301 students (16–18 years old, whose families are living in relative poverty)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Academic support programmes and personalised academic accompaniment lower number of dropouts; Repeated grade retention is strongly associated with ESL</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>MacMaoilir and McGillicuddy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr48">2022</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Ireland</p></td><td><p>33 female school students, 4 teachers, 2 year heads, 2 parents</p></td><td><p>Mixed methods</p></td><td><p>A critical pedagogical approach empowers female at-risk students, enhancing self-confidence, motivation, empathy, and engagement with issues impacting their lives; Reported outcomes included more positive relationships with adults/peers, increased re/engagement in class and enhanced sense of belonging in school</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Makarova and Herzog (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr49">2013</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Switzerland</p></td><td><p>4,384 fifth-grade students, 1,186 migrant youths (10–16 years old; 50.3% male and 49.7% female)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Low-achieving immigrant youth with negative attitudes towards school and poor relationships with teachers and peers are especially at risk of hidden and, eventually, of actual school dropout</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Moreira et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr50">2022</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Portugal</p></td><td><p>Gypsy (<italic>n</italic> = 42) and non-Gypsy students (<italic>n</italic> = 76) (9–16 years old)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Discrimination, racism, segregated classrooms, and teachers' negative expectations towards their academic success led to Gypsy students' cognitive disengagement; Gypsy and non-Gypsy students were highly similar in perceived support from teachers and peers</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Moreira et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr51">2023</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Portugal</p></td><td><p>213 students with Roma background, from the 5th to 10th grade (10- 19 years old; 56% male)</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Parental involvement impacts on the emotional and cognitive aspects of school engagement; Different forms of parental involvement (e.g. home or school-based) might operate through different pathways and be associated with different learning outcomes</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Pelin et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr54">2022</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Romania</p></td><td><p>120 pre-teens (64 boys and 56 girls) at risk of dropout</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>The results underscored that the most important values for pre-teens at risk of school dropout are related to social relations, skills development, free time and respecting rules; Pleasant and uncompetitive peer relations at school mitigate risk of ESL</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Roca-Campos et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr56">2021</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Spain</p></td><td><p>10 primary and secondary teachers (including training courses) from 7 schools in Valencia, Spain, and who had been developing the Zero Violence Brave Club in their schools</p></td><td><p>Qualitative</p></td><td><p>The Zero Violence Brave Club has contributed to reducing bullying in the classroom where it has been implemented, and instances of reporting for peer aggression as well as peers taking an active part in putting a stop to violence have increased; Three characteristics were identified that contributed to this outcome, including the promotion of positive feelings of respect, solidarity, and friendship as protective factors against bullying</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Savvides et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr58">2021</xref>)</p></td><td><p>England and Portugal</p></td><td><p>209 educational stakeholders and young people who were potentially at risk for ESL (12–21 years old)</p></td><td><p>Qualitative</p></td><td><p> Overly academic educational provision; lack of teacher autonomy and time; insufficient school resources and funding, including a lack of adequate career guidance; and ineffective behavioural policies leading to a lack of trust by students in adults places students at risk of ESL; Further vocational provision at school is particularly important to reverse the lack of pedagogical agency</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Spruyt et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr59">2017</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Belgium</p></td><td><p>Pupils from 9th to 12th grade (<italic>N</italic> = 4,189), 62 principals of Flemish secondary schools and 28 occasional and frequent truants</p></td><td><p>Mixed methods</p></td><td><p>Student technology aided truancy registration systems become an end in itself rather than a starting point to critically reflect on and gain more insight into the meaning of truant behaviour</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Valkov and Lavrentsova (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr62">2019</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Bulgaria</p></td><td><p>152 students (53.3% male and 46.7% female), studying in low secondary schools, including Roma schools</p></td><td><p>Quantitative</p></td><td><p>Supportive and caring teacher-student relationships and conflict free peer relationships are related to increased school engagement, motivation for learning, and academic performance; In contrast, children who feel rejected or socially excluded tend to become dissatisfied with school and are at a higher risk for dropping out</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Valls and Kyriakides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr63">2013</xref>)</p></td><td><p>Spain</p></td><td><p>3 case studies involving classrooms, teachers, students, and family members of primary schools (<italic>n </italic>= 2) and a secondary school (<italic>n </italic>= 1)</p></td><td><p>Qualitative</p></td><td><p>Interactive Groups were shown to increase learning motivation and group participation and decrease conflict among children with behavioural and attention problems; Engaging a diverse pool of adult volunteers through Interactive Groups (such as parents, community members, and former students) expands the range of educational resources and cultural knowledge available</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Wilkinson (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr64">2014</xref>)</p></td><td><p>United Kingdom</p></td><td><p>295 British Muslim boys from four secondary state schools in Muslim-dense areas of English inner-cities (11–14 years old)</p></td><td><p>Mixed methods</p></td><td><p>Addressing a community's history in school in a positive way promotes the success of its members; History can be more fully and effectively harnessed by teachers, parents and policy-planners to encourage internal integration and external social engagement in British Muslim pupils</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0193388979-8">Methodological and geographical characteristics of the articles reviewed</hd> <p>Based on a review of the 34 articles included in the analysis, it was found that most of the research has been conducted in educational settings – primarily in secondary education – and has particularly focused on vulnerable populations at risk of leaving school early. The studies employed diverse methodological approaches, including quantitative (<emph>n</emph> = 16), mixed methods (<emph>n</emph> = 9), and qualitative methodologies (<emph>n</emph> = 9). In terms of geographic context, the studies included were conducted across Europe encompassing different countries such as the United Kingdom (<emph>n</emph> = 9, one of them conducted also in Italy), Spain (<emph>n </emph>= 10), Portugal (<emph>n</emph> = 3), Romania (<emph>n</emph> = 3), Belgium (<emph>n</emph> = 1), Norway (<emph>n</emph> = 2), Switzerland (<emph>n</emph> = 2), Bulgaria (<emph>n</emph> = 1), Finland (<emph>n</emph> = 1), and Ireland (<emph>n</emph> = 2). Meanwhile, one of the articles drew on data from a variety of countries (see Table 4).</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-9">Institutional factors and mechanisms affecting underachievement and early school leaving in E...</hd> <p>After a thematic analysis of the included articles, six institutional factors emerged that have been shown to mitigate or reduce the risk of underachievement and ESL: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref34">1</reflink>) adopting heterogeneous classrooms, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref35">2</reflink>) promoting a climate of high expectations in schools, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref36">3</reflink>) adopting critical pedagogies and an engaging, culturally sensitive curriculum, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref37">4</reflink>) facilitating positive and dialogic interactions with adults and peers, (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref38">5</reflink>) providing tailored support and guidance services, and (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref39">6</reflink>) nurturing a culture of co-creation and equitable involvement of families and communities.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-10">Adopting heterogeneous classrooms</hd> <p>Segregation practices in education – such as tracking and ability grouping, geographical segregation among schools, and homogeneous classrooms based on ethnic or immigrant backgrounds – have been a prevalent practice in many countries for years and have been shown to negatively affect student outcomes. For instance, early tracking contributes to widening the gap between strong and weak students and between those from different social classes, thereby reinforcing structural barriers for disadvantaged students to proceed successfully in their academic paths (Lavrijsen & Nicaise, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref40">45</reflink>]). Some compensatory and remedial programmes for students lagging behind have also been found to have an unintended segregating effect involving students with a Roma or ethnic minority background (Alvarez-Roldan et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>]). A long history of segregation alongside experiences of racism and discrimination have been shown to lead to cognitive disengagement (Moreira et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref42">50</reflink>]) as well as underachievement and dropout (Lambrev, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref43">43</reflink>]) among Roma students.</p> <p>Considering segregation's negative consequences, a study by Aubert and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref44">4</reflink>]) has shown that implementing Interactive Groups (IGs) – an inclusive action based on employing heterogeneous and mixed-ability groupings and tapping on the community's human resources – enhanced reading acquisition, language development, English as a second language, and mathematics among students of participating classrooms in Spain. Skills enhancement was also evident not only among disadvantaged students but also for capable peers as they learn to assist and influence one another. Additionally, a study by Valls and Kyriakides ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref45">63</reflink>]) found that IGs increased students' learning motivation and group participation and decreased conflict among children with behavioural and attention problems. Adopting a holistic approach to learning, including mixed-age arrangements where students go to class with siblings and cousins, also likely contributes to enhancing family support and involvement among those from Gypsy/Traveller backgrounds (Cudworth, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref46">11</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-11">Promoting a climate of high expectations in schools</hd> <p>Teacher support is widely viewed as crucial for students' engagement, while low teacher expectations regarding attendance and achievement contribute to decreased likelihood of staying in school, especially among Roma students (Moreira et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref47">50</reflink>]). Teachers' negative beliefs could become widespread in the institution, resulting in catastrophic experiences of discrimination and racism that hamper Roma students' academic opportunities and present leaving school as the "natural" path for them (Lavrijsen & Nicaise, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref48">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>To mitigate this, evidence shows that maintaining high expectations even among students from disadvantaged groups and providing them with the necessary support to enhance student learning are paramount (Cockerill et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref49">10</reflink>]; Valls & Kyriakides, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref50">63</reflink>]). This includes setting challenging and specific targets coupled with regular curriculum mapping to ensure it aligns with students' age and developmental stages (Cockerill et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref51">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>Gómez-González and colleagues' ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref52">32</reflink>]) study also suggests that the same can be said for their families, whereby perceived trust and in high expectations from school staff made them feel valued and helped overcome emotional barriers such as fear and in security. This, in turn, enhanced their ability to provide educational support to their children, ultimately improving their odds against educational failure and ESL. They also found that raising teachers' expectations was possible when they engaged with other colleagues who held high standards. These outcomes were linked to the Family Education programme, which operated on the principles embodied in Schools as Learning Communities (Flecha & Soler, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref53">24</reflink>]) and included a range of activities such as language courses, dialogic literary gatherings (DLGs), instrumental training courses, and ICT skills programmes that were based on the actual needs expressed by the families (Gómez-González et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref54">32</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-12">Adopting critical pedagogies and an engaging, culturally sensitive curriculum</hd> <p>Fixed or mainstream curricula that are not sensitive to the cultures embedded in the school context are identified as an institutional factor of underachievement and ESL in Europe (Cudworth, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref55">11</reflink>]; Lambrev, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref56">43</reflink>]; Wilkinson, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref57">64</reflink>]). Specifically in the case of Roma students, Cudworth ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref58">11</reflink>]) found elevated underachievement and ESL when the school curriculum fails to acknowledge the Roma culture or demonstrates a clear lack of knowledge of its traditions. Cudworth's conclusions are aligned with Lambrev's ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref59">43</reflink>]) analysis revealing that mainstream curriculum that neglects Roma's educational needs is linked to students' underachievement. In a similar vein, Moreira and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref60">50</reflink>]) found that the persistent undervaluation of their knowledge by schools contributes to Gypsy students exhibiting lower intrinsic motivation and reduced educational aspirations. On the other hand, when this issue was explored among Muslim students, research points out that a well-conceived and sound Muslim history curriculum has a positive impact on multidimensional academic success (Wilkinson, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref61">64</reflink>]). Adopting a more holistic and flexible approach to learning that involves topic-based and real-life projects has also been shown to particularly benefit students from ethnic minority backgrounds such as Gypsy and Traveller children (Cudworth, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref62">11</reflink>]). Overall, Savvides and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref63">58</reflink>]) point to the need to veer away from a "one size fits all" educational provision model that ignores students' varied needs and skills, both on an academic and practical level.</p> <p>Along with curriculum design, a critical pedagogical approach (which focuses on raising awareness through reflection and action) emerges as a driver of academic engagement among female students (MacMaoilir & McGillicuddy, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref64">48</reflink>]). Indeed, it has been shown to empower female at-risk students in marginalised contexts in Ireland by enhancing their self-confidence, motivation and empathy while fostering a sense of belonging in school and increasing (re)engagement in class. This institutional element appears to support the critical awakening of the students, evoking epistemic emotions and ultimately leads to improved academic achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-13">Facilitating positive and dialogic interactions with adults and peers</hd> <p>The scientific literature reviewed suggests that positive student-teacher and peer interactions nurture educational engagement and prevent or mitigate ESL (de Castro & Pereira, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref65">12</reflink>]; Duffy & Elwood, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref66">16</reflink>]; Makarova & Herzog, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref67">49</reflink>]; Pelin et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref68">54</reflink>]; Valkov & Lavrentsova, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref69">62</reflink>]). Positive peer interactions are especially important (Duffy & Elwood, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref70">16</reflink>]; Hardoy & Schøne, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref71">35</reflink>]), whereby fostering respect, friendship, and a sense of solidarity among students can lead to a reduction of violence in schools and positive student wellbeing overall (Roca-Campos et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref72">56</reflink>]).</p> <p>More specifically for student-teacher interactions, it was found that high emotional support from teachers protected students with high academic disengagement from leaving school early (Gasser et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref73">29</reflink>]). Duffy and Elwood's ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref74">16</reflink>]) study reinforces these findings, concluding that student–teacher relationships are key factors that contribute to school engagement in 18 educational centres with students aged 10–13 in Ireland. Meanwhile, de Castro and Pereira ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref75">12</reflink>]) found that students' perceptions of acceptance and understanding from their teachers is associated with enhanced school performance both for those attending regular and alternative education. To achieve positive outcomes, Cockerill and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref76">10</reflink>]) emphasised the importance of equipping and deploying a skilled teaching staff, as well as fostering regular staff discussions for collective curriculum development and providing support for novice or weaker staff members.</p> <p>In addition to relationships with teachers, existing research points to the important role that other adults play in the classroom to encourage school engagement. For instance, the involvement of adult volunteers from the community in Interactive Groups was perceived to accelerate the learning process among those from highly marginalised groups by multiplying learning interactions among children and between children and adults (Aubert et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref77">4</reflink>]). In a wider sense, students' sense of belonging has been found to be a significant predictor of school absenteeism, as evidenced by Frehill and Dunsmuir's ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref78">26</reflink>]) study. However, students' feelings of connectedness and wellbeing can be diminished by educational policies oriented towards performance culture – such as an increased focus on high-stakes testing (Högberg & Lindgren, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref79">39</reflink>]) and positioning in league tables (Cudworth, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref80">11</reflink>]) – and experiences of racism and prejudiced behaviours (Cudworth, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref81">11</reflink>]). Instead, fostering positive interactions is paramount in tackling underachievement and ESL. For instance, Lasarte and colleagues' ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref82">44</reflink>]) study involving 1,468 secondary students in Spain found that perceived social support from teachers, families, and peers at school predicted school engagement both directly and indirectly through perceived academic performance.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-14">Providing tailored support and guidance services</hd> <p>The existence of accessible counselling and school guidance has been shown to provide a safety net against ESL. According to Hodgson and Spours ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref83">37</reflink>]), 14- to 16-year-old learners from six schools in southern England acknowledged the value of accessible counselling services and guidance in the school setting in terms of helping them consider different options as they shape their academic path. This is coherent with Savvides and colleagues' ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref84">58</reflink>]) findings while exploring risk factors for ESL across 18 educational settings in Portugal and England, which revealed that the students' lack of choices to direct their learning paths could be reversed by providing accessible vocational provision at the school level. Additionally, Lavrijsen and Nicaise's ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref85">45</reflink>]) study showed that vocational guidance in upper secondary education provides additional support to students by offering different academic pathways as a valuable alternative with relatively attractive labour market prospects. Facilitating this kind of provision within the school setting might improve students' learning experiences as well as help them overcome the lack of choices, freedom, and flexibility to pursue successful educational paths (Savvides et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref86">58</reflink>]). Similarly, when Ahola and Kivelä ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref87">1</reflink>]) explored this issue in Finland, they found that a shortage of counsellors or a restricted service might have a negative impact on students' opportunities to access these important resources. Equally as important, several studies have alluded to the evidence supporting the effectiveness of continuous identification and follow up (Longás-Mayayo et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref88">47</reflink>]; Spruyt et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref89">59</reflink>]) as well as prompt and sustained personalised support for students at risk of ESL (Brown et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref90">7</reflink>]). As Pelin and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref91">54</reflink>]) suggest, teachers, psychologists, parents, and other significant adults in the lives of pre-teens can intervene by offering social support and security, and by addressing academic and everyday successes or failures without making comparisons to other children.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-15">Nurturing a culture of co-creation and equitable involvement of families and communities</hd> <p>Holistic measures that are coherent, consistent, inclusive, ethical, and that enable all stakeholders – including young people – to be agents of their learning pathways emerge as key elements of policies when tackling ESL in Europe (Savvides et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref92">58</reflink>]). Several studies alluded to the importance of family and community involvement both in the students' academic journeys and also in the wider school processes. With regard to the former, Moreira and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref93">51</reflink>]) concluded that involving parents in the students' learning contexts enhances school engagement. Similarly, a study by Gómez-González and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref94">32</reflink>]) in the Spanish context found that programmes oriented towards involving families and raising their academic skills, especially linguistic ones, enhanced their capacity to provide educational support to their children. Through these initiatives, family members are able to rethink their role in the process, raising their confidence to help with homework or engage in conversations about school with them. As a result, the benefits are evident not only in the way families talk about their children's educational futures but also in their behaviours, such as actively participating in educational processes and setting a positive example for their children.</p> <p>In relation to the community's involvement in the wider school processes, several studies alluded to the importance of having liaisons or school governors from ethnic minorities (Cudworth, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref95">11</reflink>]), engaging a diverse pool of adult volunteers in classroom activities through Interactive Groups (Valls & Kyriakides, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref96">63</reflink>]), as well as enabling families to contribute in planning, delivering, and evaluating lessons and students' progress (Cockerill et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref97">10</reflink>]). Valls and Kyriakides ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref98">63</reflink>]) found that the presence of community adults from minority backgrounds in the classroom positively influences children's learning as they serve as role models and help bridge cultural and language gaps. These initiatives resonate with García-Carrión and colleagues' ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref99">28</reflink>]) study showing that establishing structures for family and community participation in decision-making processes, especially based on egalitarian dialogue, can improve academic outcomes as well as reduce ESL. Indeed, existing literature shows how providing spaces for family and community involvement in schools, such as in shared learning activities and decision-making processes, can improve academic outcomes and mitigate the risk of leaving school early, especially among those from ethnic minority backgrounds (Flecha & Soler, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref100">24</reflink>]; García-Carrión & Díez-Palomar, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref101">27</reflink>]). Additionally, Cockerill and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref102">10</reflink>]) found that leveraging local intelligence networks is crucial for promoting high achievement in schools. This approach allows for prompt notification of changes in students' familial circumstances and the swift provision of specialist support to address emerging challenges.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-16">Concluding discussion</hd> <p>This systematic review aims to analyse the influence of institutional determinants on underachievement and ESL in Europe. After a rigorous review process, 34 studies examining the impact of various institutional factors on ESL were selected. Following a thematic analysis, the review concludes that certain institutional factors act as buffers against the risk of underachievement and leaving school early. These factors include adopting heterogeneous classrooms; promoting a climate of high expectations in schools; implementing critical pedagogies and an engaging, culturally sensitive curriculum; facilitating positive and dialogic interactions with adults and peers; providing tailored support and guidance services; and nurturing a culture of co-creation and equitable involvement of families and communities. Some of these institutional factors affect school (dis)engagement, which is a powerful mediator of children's learning outcomes and is found to be linked to underachievement and ESL (Kerekes et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref103">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>As a second objective, this review also aims to illustrate how these institutional factors interact with other social determinants in the phenomena of underachievement and ESL, as they clearly do not act on their own. For instance, school policies and practices can foster the educational success of students facing deprivation and low socio-economic conditions (Alvarez-Roldan et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref104">2</reflink>]; Lavrijsen & Nicaise, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref105">45</reflink>]; Makarova & Herzog, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref106">49</reflink>]; Pelin et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref107">54</reflink>]; Savvides et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref108">58</reflink>]). Institutional efforts are also shaped by the wider social, political, and economic fabric in which schools are located, whereby increased public expenditure in education has been shown to correlate with between-region differences in ESL outcomes in country contexts such as Spain (Bayón-Calvo et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref109">5</reflink>]).</p> <p>Beyond the socio-economic dimension, institutional elements also relate with cognitive, emotional, and behavioural factors. Students' self-esteem is nurtured by properly addressing their emotional needs, which ultimately leads to increased school engagement and higher educational achievement (Brown et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref110">7</reflink>]). In this regard, excessive testing and competitiveness between peers not only correlate with ESL but also might jeopardise students' well-being (Cudworth, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref111">11</reflink>]; Högberg & Lindgren, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref112">39</reflink>]). Finally, positive relationships between students and teachers promote a favourable perception of school (Duffy & Elwood, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref113">16</reflink>]). Therefore, ensuring a positive climate, which promotes the psycho-emotional development of students, fosters educational success and prevents ESL.</p> <p>Additionally, institutional factors interact with culture in shaping underachievement and ESL, in the sense that many of them target migrant populations and students with culturally diverse backgrounds as highlighted in several studies (Alvarez-Roldan et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref114">2</reflink>]; Hardoy & Schøne, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref115">35</reflink>]; Lambrev, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref116">43</reflink>]; Moreira et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref117">51</reflink>]; Wilkinson, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref118">64</reflink>]). For Roma students and families, a sense of belonging in school – which has been found to reduce absenteeism (Frehill & Dunsmuir, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref119">26</reflink>]) and facilitate school engagement (Högberg & Lindgren, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref120">39</reflink>]) – might be jeopardised by prejudices and systemic barriers at the institutional level, such as curricula that do not include features of Roma culture and traditions (Cudworth, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref121">11</reflink>]). Therefore, a better understanding and integration of minority cultures, such as Roma or Muslim cultures, into the school curriculum is identified as an institutional factor that fosters school engagement (Lambrev, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref122">43</reflink>]; Wilkinson, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref123">64</reflink>]). Additionally, the importance of linguistic differences in school engagement has been emphasised, particularly in studies involving vulnerable populations (Brown et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref124">7</reflink>]). Implementing specific programmes that promote the social and linguistic inclusion of immigrants is thus recognised as an effective institutional strategy to prevent ESL (Bayón-Calvo et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref125">5</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-17">Limitations and implications for future research</hd> <p>A review of the scientific literature has identified several gaps in existing research. On the one hand, conducting more longitudinal studies (including the interrelationship and mediation processes of as many variables as possible) would enhance the knowledge we have so far about institutional factors as social determinants of underachievement and ESL. Also, a vast number of studies conducted in contexts outside the EU and the UK were not included in the analysis, highlighting a research gap, as there is a significantly greater amount of research carried out in the United States and other continents compared to Europe. In addition, the systematic review did not yield relevant studies on the impact of teacher-student ratio in underachievement or ESL, which suggests that this institutional factor has received limited attention in the literature. Evidence on the impact of school calendar or configuration of the academic year was also missing in the studies analysed, possibly because other institutional factors have a more prominent impact on underachievement and ESL.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-18">Implications for practice and future research</hd> <p>This systematic review adopts a transformative lens to examine extant literature on institutional factors that have been shown to mitigate or reduce the risk of ESL and underachievement. By shifting the focus to actionable contextual elements, it offers a fresh perspective on how schools and institutions can drive change. The review also explores a wide range of both well-established and lesser-known strategies, broadening policymakers' and practitioners' evidence-informed understanding of how to effectively address these challenges. At the theoretical level, it builds on the findings of previous systematic reviews, providing updated insights from literature over the past decade.</p> <p>Considering the study's limitations, it would be advisable to analyse through which variables these institutional determinants impact on ESL. That is, mediation analyses could be carried out among other aspects that could be influencing this relationship, such as, for example, the self-concept or self-efficacy of students and families and school engagement, among others. Also, it is possible to analyse how these determinants interact with each other, causing exponentially more negative consequences.</p> <p>These findings shed light on how educational settings and systems can counteract underachievement and ESL. Inclusive practices such as Interactive Groups and culturally responsive curricula could be implemented to enhance engagement and foster a sense of belonging among students. Teacher training should focus on maintaining high expectations, identifying and reframing biases, and equipping educators with strategies for managing classroom diversity. Schools can also expand counselling and vocational guidance services to offer tailored support. Family and community engagement is crucial, whereby a whole-school approach promoting equal and shared responsibility for students' success is emphasised.</p> <p>At the policy level, national and European frameworks should support policies mandating heterogeneous classrooms and accessible counseling services in schools, particularly in areas with high ESL rates and underachievement. Teacher professional development should remain a key focus, allocating resources to enhance educators' cultural sensitivity and high expectations. Additionally, policies should incentivise inclusive approaches, such as Schools as Learning Communities and Interactive Groups, while embedding participatory decision-making structures that involve families and communities in school governance. By consolidating existing knowledge from successful initiatives that have reduced ESL and underachievement, this review offers both conceptual insights and practical tools that schools can leverage to design effective and evidence-based strategies that support children's success within and beyond school.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-19">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>The authors express their gratitude to the two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful critique and valuable suggestions, which helped improve and clarify the manuscript. This study was supported by the European Research Executive Agency (REA) under Horizon Europe Grant Agreement No. 101061288.</p> <hd id="AN0193388979-20">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0193388979-21"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref34" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Ahola, S., & Kivelä, S. (2007). 'Education is important, but ... 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  Data: Addressing Underachievement and Early School Leaving in Europe: The Role of Institutional Factors
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  Data: English
– Name: Author
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  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alba+García-Cid%22">Alba García-Cid</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Andrea+Khalfaoui%22">Andrea Khalfaoui</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Aitana+Fernández-Villardón%22">Aitana Fernández-Villardón</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Icy+Fresno+Anabo%22">Icy Fresno Anabo</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Nerea+Gutiérrez-Fernández%22">Nerea Gutiérrez-Fernández</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maite+Santiago-Garabieta%22">Maite Santiago-Garabieta</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Dildora+Sharipova%22">Dildora Sharipova</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lourdes+Villardón-Gallego%22">Lourdes Villardón-Gallego</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rocío+García-Carrión%22">Rocío García-Carrión</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Educational+Review%22"><i>Educational Review</i></searchLink>. 2026 78(4):586-606.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 21
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Information Analyses
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Literature+Reviews%22">Literature Reviews</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Dropout+Research%22">Dropout Research</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Attainment%22">Educational Attainment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Persistence%22">Academic Persistence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Environment%22">Educational Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Underachievement%22">Underachievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Influences%22">Influences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Role%22">School Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Practices%22">Educational Practices</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Europe%22">Europe</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/00131911.2025.2459902
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0013-1911<br />1465-3397
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This systematic review aims to analyse the existing evidence on the institutional factors that counteract underachievement and Early School Leaving (ESL) in Europe. Considering the role of context in generating optimal learning environments, a more nuanced understanding of how institutional aspects could be shaped to improve students' school outcomes is paramount. The Web of Science, SCOPUS, and PsycINFO databases were used to identify relevant papers following the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 7,049 entries were generated from the initial search and were subjected to a blind review process using the web application Rayyan, which resulted in 34 articles being included in the final review. Following a thematic analysis, it was found that adopting heterogeneous classrooms, promoting a climate of high expectations in schools, implementing critical pedagogies and an engaging, culturally sensitive curriculum, facilitating positive and dialogic interactions with adults and peers, providing tailored support and guidance services, and nurturing a culture of co-creation and equitable involvement of families and communities act as buffers against the risk of underachievement and early school leaving. These findings shed light on possible practical approaches for addressing these issues, including the implementation of Successful Educational Actions, providing targeted support for the most vulnerable, and promoting a whole-school approach to ensure that dialogues between educational communities and school staff are frequent and constructive.
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  Data: 2026
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1504527
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/00131911.2025.2459902
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 21
        StartPage: 586
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Literature Reviews
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dropout Research
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Attainment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Persistence
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      – SubjectFull: Educational Environment
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      – SubjectFull: Underachievement
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      – SubjectFull: Europe
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      – TitleFull: Addressing Underachievement and Early School Leaving in Europe: The Role of Institutional Factors
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