Daoist Inner Peace, Social Justice and Peace Education
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| Title: | Daoist Inner Peace, Social Justice and Peace Education |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Jing Dang (ORCID |
| Source: | Journal of Peace Education. 2026 23(1):1-23. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 23 |
| Publication Date: | 2026 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Descriptive |
| Descriptors: | Philosophy, Peace, Social Justice, Citizenship Education, Spiritual Development, Social Development, Ethics, Interpersonal Relationship, Social Responsibility |
| DOI: | 10.1080/17400201.2025.2495755 |
| ISSN: | 1740-0201 1740-021X |
| Abstract: | This article draws on Daoist ideas to explore peace education (PE) with reference to global citizenship education (GCE). A Daoist account of inner peace, characterised by spiritual freedom and emotional equanimity, can illuminate how to nurture 'peace thinkers' for a more peaceful, just and sustainable world. This article begins with a critical review of the current PE dominated by inter-peace building notwithstanding the increasing demand for intra-peace building. This is followed by an explication of Daoist inner peace, namely (1) inner peace through social engagement rather than social withdrawal, (2) the dependence on external things that disrupt our inner peace, and (3) the need to live with the inevitable to avoid emotional upheaval. The article then goes on to discuss how PE informed by Daoist inner peace can provide a non-violent method for confronting social injustice, all the while addressing the cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioural goals of GCE. This Daoist approach augments students' inner peace by encouraging them to fulfil their ethical responsibilities through actively redressing social injustice. More importantly, students learn to be mindful of the nature of the emotions evoked by social injustice and not be distracted by destructive emotions such as reactive and impulsive anger. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2026 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1505455 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwGR6n1r_vruiZYUT3kJEdQCAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDDKQD_4pjXNPZoYiewIBEICBm6oKWlFj2O9hpXufiwlSxLeSbngxB-0bmepjnat9h6DEU71Q-mdapX9TUBw4FrZEJjiPxVREI4hQ5L7icwgTp2Mtznoc7W1qA3u3NXWMUE2ubRBCSilM-h-zvu2O_AuVmfvYL1zy8E4dx7NrawKYSJ1t7Irg3BCftH234e_eCvdsBnWP2Mw9WnbIlCEO-4R1Cy4h3HXDMEs4RWQR Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0192434879;rfp01apr.26;2026Mar24.05:06;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0192434879-1">Daoist inner peace, social justice and peace education </title> <p>This article draws on Daoist ideas to explore peace education (PE) with reference to global citizenship education (GCE). A Daoist account of inner peace, characterised by spiritual freedom and emotional equanimity, can illuminate how to nurture 'peace thinkers' for a more peaceful, just and sustainable world. This article begins with a critical review of the current PE dominated by inter-peace building notwithstanding the increasing demand for intra-peace building. This is followed by an explication of Daoist inner peace, namely (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) inner peace through social engagement rather than social withdrawal, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) the dependence on external things that disrupt our inner peace, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>) the need to live with the inevitable to avoid emotional upheaval. The article then goes on to discuss how PE informed by Daoist inner peace can provide a non-violent method for confronting social injustice, all the while addressing the cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioural goals of GCE. This Daoist approach augments students' inner peace by encouraging them to fulfil their ethical responsibilities through actively redressing social injustice. More importantly, students learn to be mindful of the nature of the emotions evoked by social injustice and not be distracted by destructive emotions such as reactive and impulsive anger.</p> <p>Keywords: Daoism (or Taoism); Zhuangzi; inner peace; social injustice; peace education; global citizenship education</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Peacebuilding has become increasingly important since the horrors of the two World Wars and the continuing prevalence of conflict and violence at the local, national and global spheres. The Preamble to the Constitution of UNESCO declares that 'since wars begin in the minds of men [<emph>sic</emph>], it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed' (APCEIU ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref4">1</reflink>]), 8); and as Reardon and Snauwaert ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref5">55</reflink>], 98) add, 'If we are to be peacemakers, then we must learn to be peace thinkers' (see also Bai, Voulgaris, and Williams [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>]; Lin [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref7">39</reflink>]). The United Nations ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref8">66</reflink>], 21) embarked on the 'promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence' as one of the significant goals for education to be established by 2030. Indeed, peace education (PE) as a peacebuilding mechanism can be integrated into education in various ways (Fried [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref9">19</reflink>]). A common framing is to focus on two dimensions: <emph>education for peace</emph> that looks at ways of encouraging peace across multiple disciplines (e.g. Lin [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref10">39</reflink>]; Low [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref11">42</reflink>]; Tocci and Moon [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref12">62</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref13">70</reflink>]), and <emph>education of peace</emph> that directly takes peacebuilding as its content (like PE via GCE in the present article). By integrating these two dimensions, PE plays an important role in transforming students into 'peace thinkers' and transforming education into a daily practice of peacebuilding through non-violence pedagogy (see Low [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref14">42</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref15">68</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref16">69</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref17">70</reflink>]).</p> <p>Further developing a framework for PE, Toh and Cawagas ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref18">63</reflink>]) use a six-petal flower metaphor to propose multiple approaches for developing a culture of peace through GCE, consisting of 'dismantling the culture of war', 'living with justice and compassion', 'building intercultural respect, reconciliation, and solidarity', 'promotion of human rights and responsibilities', 'living in harmony with the earth' and 'inner peace' (see also Fried [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>]). Apart from the inward cultivation of one's 'inner peace', the majority of these approaches are focused on outward behaviour and aim at building peaceful relationships at various levels: international, interpersonal, intercultural and environmental. Thus, we may contrast <emph>intra-peace</emph>, which aims to build a peaceful mind or inner self at a personal level, with <emph>inter-peace</emph>, which endeavours to build peaceful relations with others at political and socio-cultural levels. These two should be mutually contributing to and complementary to each other.</p> <p>Regarding PE in GCE, scholarly discussion is dominated by <emph>inter-peace</emph> building (see the following section). To augment the existing research, this article explores <emph>intra-peace</emph> building – the cultivation of inner peace – by drawing on the Daoist concept of 'wandering unchained with ease' (<emph>xiao yao you</emph>). In nurturing students' inner harmony, the Daoist endeavour to promote spiritual freedom can illuminate PE. Along with a number of scholars in PE (e.g. Bai et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref20">4</reflink>]; Catabia [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref21">9</reflink>]; Gill and Thomson [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref22">23</reflink>], 52; Lin [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref23">39</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref24">71</reflink>]), I argue that inner peace can lay the foundation for interpersonal relationships and transform students' response to local, national and global affairs like social justice. In addition to the intra-peace focus, this article also draws on Daoist ideas to respond to the cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioural domains of GCE, with a special focus on the behavioural domain. We begin with a critical review of PE to demonstrate a paucity of focus on inner peace in PE literature, in contrast to the growing significance of inner peace in education. From here we move to a detailed discussion of the Daoist understanding of inner peace through two Daoist classics, the <emph>Dao De Jing</emph> and particularly the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph>. After this, focusing on how students can gain inner peace while confronting social injustice, Daoist cultivation of inner peace is applied to PE with reference to the three domains of GCE. Daoist inner peace values our ethical responsibilities for and active social engagement in confronting social injustice as proposed by the behavioural domain of GCE. This, further, requires teachers and students to critically reflect on micro and macro contributors to social injustice, understand the nature of the emotions (e.g. anger, emotional burnout) arising from social injustice and transform self-centred emotions into ethically responsible actions against social injustice; which will contribute to the cognitive and socio-emotional domains of GCE – developing students' knowledge, critical thinking skills and socio-emotional competency for social justice and peacebuilding.</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-3">An imbalance within PE and the significance of inner peace</hd> <p>Peacebuilding, as promoted through GCE, is argued to play an important role in addressing 'inter-personal, inter-state, intrastate conflicts as well as developing the competency to fight against social contradictions along with structural and inner violence originated from an uneven global order' (APCEIU [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref25">1</reflink>], 10). This perception of peacebuilding has dominated scholarly discussion on both <emph>negative peace</emph> and <emph>positive peace</emph> (see Galtung and Fischer [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref26">21</reflink>]; Gill and Thomson [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref27">23</reflink>]). To elaborate, <emph>negative peace</emph> here refers to an absence of violence, such as direct violence (like war), structural violence (like gender and racial inequality), cultural violence (like homogeneity) and violence towards the environment (like pollution and over-exploration) (see Galtung and Fischer [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref28">21</reflink>], 173; Gill and Thomson [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref29">23</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref30">69</reflink>]). In this way, peacebuilding is more about using non-violent solutions to terminate conflict with others, whether other nations, other people, other cultures or other things beyond humans like the environment. By contrast, <emph>positive peace</emph> denotes the presence of peace, social justice, human rights, solidarity, sustainable development, etc. In this vein, peacebuilding refers not only to eradicating violence with others but also to developing peaceful relationships with others by bringing out love, empathy, tolerance of difference and so on (see Bai [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref31">2</reflink>]; Catabia [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref32">9</reflink>]; Fried [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref33">19</reflink>]; Galtung and Fischer [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref34">21</reflink>]; Yang, Lin, and Culham [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref35">74</reflink>]; Toh 2006, cited in Fried [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref36">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>The existing scholarship of PE draws on multiple traditions, including Western traditions, indigenous concepts and Eastern thought, but it is dominated by the inter-peace orientation that aims at building peaceful relationships with others (e.g. Catabia [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref37">9</reflink>]; Joshi [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref38">32</reflink>]; U. King [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref39">34</reflink>]; South [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref40">59</reflink>]; Sun [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref41">60</reflink>]; Tocci and Moon [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref42">62</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref43">67</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref44">69</reflink>], Wenning [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref45">72</reflink>]; see; Carter [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref46">8</reflink>], Ch. 1). Whether conceived as negative peace (aimed at diminishing violence) or positive peace (seeking for love, justice, tolerance and reconciliation), peacebuilding requires us to work on relations external to us. It is something <emph>out there</emph>, as has been captured by civics education scholars Torremorell, de Nicolás, and García-Raga ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref47">64</reflink>], 73). They found that only 10% of students regard peace as 'Inner peace and harmony', in contrast with 48% of students conceiving it as negative peace (an absence of violence) and 34% consider peace as 'a way of living together'.</p> <p>On the other hand, the need for students' inner peacebuilding is acquiring renewed urgency due to the prevalence of standardisation and competitiveness in modern schools. Scholars caution that education orientated towards academic performance can be deleterious for students' overall wellbeing (e.g. Komelski et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref48">35</reflink>]; Ma and Wang [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref49">43</reflink>]; Reardon and Snauwaert [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref50">55</reflink>]). In contrast to this overemphasis on external performance measures, scholars (such as those in holistic education) have argued that human growth and development include not only intellectual competencies in the mind but also physical, spiritual and socio-emotional dimensions (see Bai, Anderson, and Scott [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref51">3</reflink>]; Gause and Coholic [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref52">22</reflink>]; Jackson [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref53">29</reflink>]; McIntosh [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref54">47</reflink>], 40). In terms of peacebuilding, Reardon and Snauwaert ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref55">55</reflink>], 104) argue that a competitive atmosphere undermines students' confidence and potential for complementarity, that it reinforces their urge to comply with social conventions and discourages meaningful risk-taking due to a lack of support and confidence. All these factors can negatively impede students from taking action to bring about positive peace. If we wish to combine a more holistic approach to PE and GCE, we must value socio-emotional and spiritual development in addition to intellectual growth, and PE should also support students' cultivation of inner peace, especially young students, over and above equipping them with knowledge and skills for social, political and intercultural peace. As Toh and Cawagas ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref56">63</reflink>]) point out:</p> <p>Via the transformative bridges of GCED [equivalent to GCE], children in contrasting social, economic, and cultural conditions can reach out to each other in a spirit of compassion to work together for social justice, human rights, sustainable futures, and inner peace (<reflink idref="bib534" id="ref57">534</reflink>).</p> <p>Their hope for 'a spirit of compassion' looks not only to the outside world but also to the inner self.</p> <p>A different picture emerges, however, when Chinese (and also broadly East Asian) philosophies and religions start to play a more prominent role in cross-cultural dialogue on peacebuilding and PE. Within these traditions, there is a marked emphasis on the connection between inner peace and peace in the world. Consider, for instance, longstanding practices in traditions such as Confucious self-cultivation for harmony (e.g. Patt-Shamir [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref58">54</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref59">69</reflink>]), Daoist conflict transformation and mindfulness (e.g. Joshi [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref60">32</reflink>]; Ng [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref61">51</reflink>]; Smythe [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref62">58</reflink>]; South [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref63">59</reflink>]; Tocci and Moon [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref64">62</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref65">67</reflink>]) and Buddhist non-attachment and mindfulness (e.g. Bai [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref66">2</reflink>]; Eppert et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref67">16</reflink>]; Jin [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref68">31</reflink>]; Lim [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref69">38</reflink>]). PE, more directly informed by Chinese and East Asian traditions, tends to both diverge from and complement the dominant external-oriented theories. Whether centred on Confucius' notion of personhood or Daoist and Buddhist mindfulness, peace in Chinese and East Asian traditions is often viewed as a natural outcome of self-cultivation arising from the inner world. Peacebuilding thus becomes primarily a thing within the <emph>inner</emph> self. As Lin ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref70">39</reflink>]) remarks, the outer world is a reflection of our inner reality. This extends our understanding of peace from an external relationship to include inner peacefulness or harmony. Peacebuilding is broadened from a political and sociocultural engagement to a spiritual and psychological practice that looks to resolve or transform emotional turbulence such as dissatisfaction, hostility and hatred (Catabia [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref71">9</reflink>]; Gill and Thomson [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref72">23</reflink>]; Said and Lerch [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref73">56</reflink>]; Salomon [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref74">57</reflink>]; Toh 2006 cited in Fried [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref75">19</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref76">69</reflink>]). Again, as mentioned by children interviewed by Torremorell, de Nicolás, and García-Raga ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref77">64</reflink>], 73), inner peace and harmony denotes 'a feeling inside me that helps me feel better'. Indeed, the powerful force emanating from one's inner world can help foster non-violent external relationships at different levels.</p> <p>Therefore, this article intends to explore Daoist self-cultivation of inner peace to augment the existing scholarship on peacebuilding and PE. In particular, it endeavours to integrate students' inner and outer efforts in acting for social justice (cf. Bai, Voulgaris, and Williams [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref78">6</reflink>]; Magee [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref79">44</reflink>]; Miller [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref80">48</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref81">71</reflink>]). To establish a more peaceful, just and inclusive world hinges not only on construction of fair systems <emph>out there</emph>, but also individuals' internal capabilities to work amidst social constraints and turmoil. In promoting such a cross-cultural dialogue between Chinese philosophy and other philosophical systems, between East and West, it is hoped that the existing theories of peacebuilding and PE can be broadened, applying ancient ideas to the modern world, and specifically Chinese and other East Asian ideas to global problems (see Eppert et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref82">16</reflink>]; Smythe [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref83">58</reflink>]; Tocci and Moon [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref84">62</reflink>]). This can enhance cross-cultural understanding and tolerance, which is a peaceful practice of <emph>education for peace</emph> in and of itself.</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-4">Daoist inner peace: to wander unchained with ease</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0192434879-5">Inner peace without social withdrawal</hd> <p>Daoist inner peace refers to a state of spiritual freedom and emotional contentedness, as conveyed by the title of Chapter 1 of the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph>, <emph>xiao yao you</emph> ('to wander unchained with ease') (see Höchsmann and Yang [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref85">26</reflink>], 36; Jiang [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref86">30</reflink>]; Lai [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref87">36</reflink>]; Wang [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref88">71</reflink>]). To achieve this inner peace, one nurtures the inner spiritual and emotional self rather than the physical form. This is illustrated in the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph> by a marsh pheasant's foraging (Ch. 3). The marsh pheasant pecks at food every 10 steps, and drinks water every 100 steps. On the other hand, if it were fed in a cage, it would eat well and be full of energy with ease. Yet, despite these material benefits, the marsh pheasant never wants to be caged at the expense of its spiritual freedom. These material benefits symbolise external distractions that induce ignorance of inner spiritual wellbeing. By the same token, Daoist sages – such as the spirit-like men mentioned below – are free from external interruptions. As Zhuangzi writes (Ch. 1):</p> <p>Such persons [the spirit-like men] are harmed by no thing. A flood may reach the sky without drowning them, a drought may melt the stones and scorch the mountains without scalding them. From their dust and chaff you could mold yourself a Yao or a Shun [the ancient sage-kings]. How could they consider any particular thing worth bothering about (<emph>yi wu wei shi</emph>)? (Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref89">75</reflink>] trans., 7)</p> <p>These remarks employ symbolic expressions: the flood and drought stand for external distractions. Daoist sages are not drowned in a flood of external things, nor do they 'get heated' contending for them. Although their virtue can tutor kings and subsequently yield external value, they have no interest in pursuing these external things. Daoist sages have thrown off the shackles of worldly affairs (<emph>bu jin ren qing</emph>) and achieved inner peace, which is compared to riding on clouds or flying dragons, and wandering unfettered beyond the four seas (<emph>Zhuangzi</emph>, Ch. 1).</p> <p>It seems that Daoism negates ordinary social roles and encourages us to foster inner peace through social withdrawal (<emph>chu shi</emph>). For example, babies are used to symbolise the natural embodiment of harmony and equilibrium in another Daoist classic, the <emph>Dao De Jing</emph> (Ch. 55). They are unmoulded by society and subsequently less vulnerable to artificial knowledge constructed from and for prevailing social conventions, which manifests the key idea of having 'no knowledge' (<emph>wu zhi</emph>) in the <emph>Dao De Jing</emph> (see also <emph>Dao De Jing</emph>, Chs. 3, 19, 70; Dang [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref90">13</reflink>]). Similarly, the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph> suggests mindful practices (like sitting in forgetfulness and mind-heart fasting) to empty oneself of little knowledge based on social conventions (see Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref91">75</reflink>], 37, 62). Both the <emph>Dao De Jing</emph> and the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph> advocate for discarding artificial knowledge associated with social convention. However, Fung ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref92">20</reflink>], 116) proposes a practical differentiation between a baby's and a grownup's having no knowledge. As he writes:</p> <p>The result of discarding knowledge is to have no knowledge. But there is a difference between 'having-no knowledge' and 'having no-knowledge.' The state of 'having-no knowledge' is one of original ignorance, whereas that of 'having no-knowledge' comes only after one has passed through a prior stage of having knowledge. The former is a gift of nature, while the latter is an achievement of the spirit.</p> <p>A baby's 'having-no knowledge' is given by nature, whereas a grown-up's 'having no-knowledge' lies in self-cultivation through 'having knowledge' - one that is accomplished through social engagement rather than social withdrawal. As remarked by Wong ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref93">73</reflink>], 213), 'We are caught in the world as it is, and we cannot get out of it. Even a posture of withdrawal is a form of engagement'. Daoist sages practice self-cultivation without withdrawing from society, but by performing services for their fellow humans as conveyed in the Chapter 4 of the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph> (<emph>ren jian shi</emph>, literally 'In the human world'; Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref94">75</reflink>], 34). For example, the tutor Yan He is suggested to cultivate his inner harmony and external adaptiveness by tutoring the prince's son (see Dang [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref95">12</reflink>]), and Daoist sages with physical defects are nevertheless unperturbed and cultivate their virtue while socialising with ordinary people regardless of these defects (see Lai [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref96">36</reflink>]). A non-sage might be ashamed of their defects and withdraw from a judgmental society, but Daoist sages focus on the inner spirit (<emph>de</emph>). Their inner self is free and peaceful because they have been attuned to 'the complexity of the world and can thus navigate various domains of relationality with extraordinary grace, ease, and efficacy' (Jiang [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref97">30</reflink>], 463).</p> <p>Therefore, ethical responsibility and engagement are natural concomitants of Daoist inner peace cultivation. Instead of passive evasion, Daoism encourages us to make inner peace out of social engagement, which means to be at peace with the troubles and constraints we encounter (see also Daniel and Wang [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref98">14</reflink>]; Lai [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref99">36</reflink>]; Møllgaard [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref100">50</reflink>], 106, 136; Wang [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref101">71</reflink>]). Just like water, it stills in the turbulence and slowly becomes clear, alternates in stability and slowly advances (<emph>Dao De Jing</emph>, Ch. 15). Zhuangzi calls this water-like pacification the equilibrium out of chaos (<emph>ying ning</emph>) insofar as one secures peace within and through worldly chaos or turmoil (Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref102">75</reflink>], 58). As Møllgaard ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref103">50</reflink>], 138) remarks, 'it is not a calm imposed on chaos, but rather the calm inherent in chaos (i.e. life) itself, and therefore a completion beyond the drive towards completion'.</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-6">Disruptions to inner peace within social engagement</hd> <p>Inner peace, however, can be disrupted during one's social engagement. As pointed out by Wang ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref104">71</reflink>]): 'Free wandering is both a natural and a cultivated ability since it is inherent in humanity, but societal and cultural regulations suppress such naturalness' (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref105">3</reflink>). Zhuangzi attributes these external disruptions to our dependence on external things (<emph>you dai</emph>). These external things manipulate our emotional states (e.g. joy, sorrow, anxiety, anger, dissatisfaction), and only people who are aware of their external dependence can possibly free themselves from the emotional turbulence; one's inner world is not affected by things (<emph>wu dai</emph>).</p> <p>We now turn to this external dependence in the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph>. It writes allegorically in Chapter 2:</p> <p>The penumbra said to the shadow, 'First you were walking, then you were standing still. First you were sitting, then you were upright. Why can't you decide on a single course of action?'</p> <p>The shadow said, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref106">1</reflink>] Do I depend on something [<emph>you dai</emph>] to make me as I am? [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref107">2</reflink>] Does what I depend on depend on something else [<emph>you dai</emph>]? [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref108">3</reflink>] Is my dependence like the case of the snake's skin or the cicada's shell? How would I know why I am so or not so? (Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref109">75</reflink>] trans., 21; numbers added)</p> <p>The shadow changes because the thing it depends on changes. It has no autonomy as a result of its dependence on another thing. The shadow here metaphorically stands for a person's inner heart-mind, and these questions help us gain a better understanding of our inner world.</p> <p>The first question is 'Do I depend on something to make me as I am?' It urges us to inquire whether or not one's inner world depends on other things. For example, is my inner peace subject to external things, such as the life and death of a loved one or other external gains and losses? If so, when the loved one is alive one feels contented, and when the loved one has passed away one becomes discontent. Similarly, when one gains one becomes happy and when one loses one becomes sad. In the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph> such people find their inner peace easily disrupted by external changes, such as the youths and elders who cried so sadly at Laozi's funeral (Ch. 3; Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref110">75</reflink>], 31); or Zi Gong who was unhappy with people singing at Zi Sang's funeral – because singing represents a lack of grief and thus goes against conventional rites (Ch. 6; Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref111">75</reflink>], 60); or Huizi who questioned Zhuangzi's joyful singing (without grief) at his wife's funeral (<emph>Zhuangzi</emph>, Ch. 18; Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref112">75</reflink>], 145). These people suppose that life is good and death is bad, and happiness is the appropriate emotional state for life as grief is for death. As such, when life and death alternate, their emotions fluctuate from equanimity to upheaval. Zhuangzi thus implies that inner peace could be interrupted when one's inner self is fully determined by external things.</p> <p>The second question is 'Does what I depend on depend on something else?' This question motivates us to explore the circumstances of the things that the inner self depends on. To continue with the discussion of life and death, one may ask whether the life and death of a loved one depends on something else; or whether or not our natural assumptions about life and death – life is good, and death is bad – depend on something else. According to the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph> (Chs. 3, 5, 6, 18), both life and death are part of the constant change of <emph>qi</emph>, energy (see Dang [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref113">12</reflink>]; C. Fraser [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref114">17</reflink>]). <emph>Qi</emph> emerges, accumulates, and finally forms life; and <emph>qi</emph> continues changing and finally scatters into death (<emph>Zhuangzi</emph>, Ch. 18; Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref115">75</reflink>], 145). As such, the life and death of a loved one depends on another great transformation that is out of our control. Moreover, our assumed judgement of life and death also depends on something else. The common belief about life and death – life is a happy thing, but death is sad – is socially induced knowledge that we gained when conforming to social conventions. A blind belief in such conventional knowledge can cause unbearable and unnecessary suffering to both patients and their families, such as physical and emotional pain resulting from overtreatment of patients in the hope of preventing the death/natural transformation (Liu et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref116">40</reflink>]). This is in sharp contrast to Zhuangzi's acceptance of life and death with ease: we are burdened with physical forms, laboured with life, eased with aging, and rested with death' (<emph>Zhuangzi</emph>, Ch. 6; Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref117">75</reflink>], 56). Writing on palliative care in line with Daoism, Liu and colleagues suggest we 'let the nature take its course at the terminal stage' (<reflink idref="bib393" id="ref118">393</reflink>).</p> <p>These two questions reveal that our inner self is often dependent on many external things and these external things, in turn, depend on something greater still. This leads us to the third question: Is my dependence like the case of the snake's skin or the cicada's shell?' In other words, is my dependence on the external things removable or inevitable? For Daoists, some of our dependences are essential for life, but others are unnecessary and cause spiritual upheaval easily. As Zhuangzi (Ch.1) writes, for a tailorbird, one single branch is enough for making a nest, so it is unnecessary to occupy a big forest; and a thirsty beaver only drinks enough to fill the belly, so it is unnecessary to overtake the whole river (Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref119">75</reflink>], 6). However, people become greedy for material possessions, fame and power particularly when their society promotes materialism and the like (<emph>Dao De Jing</emph>, Chs. 3, 9, 12). They scramble for things beyond their need, which, in turn, can adversely modify people's emotional states, making them contentious, disgruntled, arrogant and discontent. People only feel happy when they and others act in accordance with the so-called right; otherwise, they feel unhappy (see Daniel and Wang [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref120">14</reflink>]; Lenehan [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref121">37</reflink>]; Oh [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref122">53</reflink>]). As explained in the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph> (Ch. 2):</p> <p>[A]ll day long we apply our minds to our struggles—small fears leave us nervous and depleted, the large fears leave us stunned and blank. Shooting forth like an arrow from a bowstring thus is our presumption as we arbitrate right and wrong. Holding fast as if to sworn oaths: thus is our defense of our victories. Worn away as if by autumn and winter: such is our daily dwindle, the failings of a drowning man unable to get him any closer to the shore. Pressed on all sides as if sealed in: such is the old drainage ditch, the rut in which we're stuck, the mind left on the verge of death with no way back to the bygone vitality. (Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref123">75</reflink>] trans., 12)</p> <p>The emotional upheavals (like struggles, fears and weariness) stem from our arbitrating right and wrong and defending our victories (see also Daniel and Wang [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref124">14</reflink>]). Such defence of the right and wrong also causes Zi Gong's dissatisfaction with Zi Sang's funeral and Huizi's complaint against Zhuangzi's 'misbehaviour' at his wife's funeral, as mentioned above. In a word, Daoism encourages us to be mindful of, and ideally free from, the removable dependencies, which will relieve us from unnecessary emotional turbulence (see Höchsmann and Yang [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref125">26</reflink>], 36).</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-7">Accommodating inevitable situations and emotions</hd> <p>Yet, some emotions in the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph> arise from inevitable circumstances where nothing can be done to avoid them (<emph>bu de yi</emph>) as if they are fated (<emph>Zhuangzi</emph>, Ch. 4; Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref126">75</reflink>]; trans., 39; see also Lai [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref127">36</reflink>]). When something is fated, it is a case of 'the transformations of events, the proceedings of fate' (<emph>Zhuangzi</emph>, Ch. 5; Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref128">75</reflink>] trans., 49). As Lenehan ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref129">37</reflink>], 1392) explains,</p> <p>Everything, as it is, therefore has its own trajectory of workings. Man is the same. A person in one way bears the limitedness of his nature and acts in accordance to it (the first aspect of fate), in another way, while encountering others which also follow their own natures, he responds to and changes with them. It is exactly in the process of this changing and moving forward with others in time that one's nature is thus externalized and manifested as the necessary trajectory or track of his fate (the second aspect of fate).</p> <p>To wander unchained with ease, human beings should be mindful of the 'fate' defined by their own and others' nature in social engagement. These internal and external limitations continually constrain our social activities, which should not be considered bad according to artificial judgment associated with conventional knowledge or personal preference. When interacting with something 'fated', one is encouraged to be spiritually accepting of inevitable constraints so that one's inner world is not interrupted. As Zhuangzi suggests, 'there is no need to let them [the transformations of events, the proceedings of fate] disrupt our harmony, and we must deny them entrance into our Numinous Reservoir' (Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref130">75</reflink>] trans., 49). Accordingly, emotions arising from engaging with these inevitable constraints – such as sorrow and joy – only <emph>interrupt</emph> us when they are married to judgments regarding right and wrong that inform our actions and behaviours.</p> <p>A good example of how one ought to treat inevitable situations and the emotions that arise from them is the tension Cook Ding experiences in cutting oxen. Although Cook Ding is well known for his effortless art of butchery, he still proceeds anxiously whenever he encounters novel and complicated joint in an ox that he cannot do anything about. As he explains (<emph>Zhuangzi</emph>, Ch. 3):</p> <p>Nonetheless, whenever I come to a clustered tangle, realising that it is difficult to <emph>do</emph> anything about it, I instead restrain myself as if terrified, until my seeing comes to a complete halt. My activity slows and the blade moves ever so slightly. Then whoosh! All at once I find the ox already dismembered at my feet like clumps of soil scattered on the ground. I retract the blade and stand there gazing at it all around me, both disoriented and satisfied by it all. Then I wipe off the blade and put it away. (Ziporyn [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref131">75</reflink>] trans., 30)</p> <p>Cook Ding does not make any effort to repress his concern about the novel and complicated joint (the clustered tangle) because he has realised that it is inevitable and the anxiety arising from confronting it is also natural. Instead of any cognitive judgement (for example, that the complicated joint is a bad luck for him, or that showing his anxiety when dealing with the joint is bad for his reputation), he still focuses on his cutting by slowing his blade while anxiously tensing himself. Cook Ding follows along the unavoidable constraints – in this case, the unusual joint in an ox – and lets the tension and emotion come and go. This indicates that unpleasant emotions arising from inevitable situations will not bring emotional turbulence provided that one does not resist them, but simply accommodates and follows along with them (Oh [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref132">53</reflink>]). In addition, although striving to avoid emotional turbulence, Zhuangzi never discourages us from having joyful and sorrowful emotions – as Cook Ding explains, he is both 'disoriented and satisfied'. His inner peace not only benefits from his non-coercive cutting skill (<emph>jie</emph>) but also his non-coercive response to anxiety. In a word, he accommodates both the inevitable constraints given by the ox and the anxiety arising from such situations at the same time.</p> <p>In sum, Daoist cultivation of inner peace is a natural outcome of non-coercive action (Helsing [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref133">25</reflink>]); it entails a removal of the unnatural and avoidable distractions without withdrawing from social life and ethical responsibilities on the one hand; and on the other, it requires a humble receptivity to inevitable contexts and the emotions they give rise to.</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-8">Inner peace, social justice and PE</hd> <p>A better understanding of a Daoist approach to inner peace should emerge when we apply it to PE with reference to the three domains of GCE. According to UNESCO ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref134">65</reflink>]), the <emph>cognitive</emph> domain of GCE refers to developing students' knowledge and thinking skills for understanding local, national and global issues, the <emph>socio-emotional</emph> domain aims to help students develop the values, attitudes and socio-emotional skills necessary for living with people from diverse cultural backgrounds, and the <emph>behavioural</emph> domain centres on teaching students to act for local, national and global issues through ethically responsible behaviours. These three domains are 'interlinked and integrated in the learning process and should not be understood as distinct learning processes', as drafted by UNESCO ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref135">65</reflink>], 22). Equipped with the appropriate knowledge, thinking skills and emotional skills, students are more likely to be ethically responsible in engaging with local, national and global issues. In this section, I discuss a Daoist approach to cultivating students' inner peace in the fulfilment of their ethical responsibilities while responding to these three domains of GCE, with a particular focus on the <emph>behavioural</emph> domain.</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-9">Inner peace building and ethical responsibility</hd> <p>Some scholars have raised concerns that focusing on individual responsibility to cultivate inner peace – such as breaking inappropriate personal attachment through mindful meditation – may distract individuals from questioning social injustice caused by problematic systems (e.g. N. Fraser [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref136">18</reflink>]; Hyland [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref137">27</reflink>]; McCaw [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref138">46</reflink>]; McIntosh [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref139">47</reflink>], 33). For example, when one simply focuses on letting go of emotional attachments (such as desire for more income) through mindfulness-based practice, one is less likely to pay attention to systemic injustice (such as unfair payment) and its contribution to personal stress. These individual-oriented practices for inner spiritual relief may shift our attention away from addressing systemic and institutional injustice when they treat the lack of inner peace as a failure of self-cultivation rather than a harmful consequence of social injustice. Although the process of non-attachment involves analytically identifying the causes of inner turmoil, it nevertheless aims to get rid of the sufferings from inside rather than externally resolving its causes in the outside world (see Low [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref140">41</reflink>], 29). Such individual orientation fails to 'engage in a personal struggle to develop a critical consciousness that actively seeks to transform prevailing realities of violence, injustice and unsustainability toward a culture of nonviolence, justice and sustainability', as suggested by Toh and Cawagas ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref141">63</reflink>], cited in Fried [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref142">19</reflink>], 27). Without ethical or socially critical considerations, inner peace training can be instrumentalised to perpetuate social inequality and produce more trauma for vulnerable individuals. In light of this objection, therefore, the nurturing of students' intra-peace must be coupled with ethical considerations, namely a critical awareness of and an active engagement with social injustice.</p> <p>PE informed by the Daoist concept of inner peace can avoid such ethical omissions because of its inherent requirement for social engagement. As discussed above, instead of social withdrawal, Daoist inner peace building hopes for active ethical engagement with social problems, just as the sages cultivate themselves through engaging with worldly affairs rather than becoming reclusive. Again, Daoist inner peace 'is not a calm imposed on chaos, but rather the calm inherent in chaos (life) itself'. The cultivation of inner peace I am proposing for GCE is one that allows students to gain inner harmony out of civic participation aimed at solving local and global issues, as suggested in the <emph>behavioural</emph> domain of GCE. It develops students' ethical responsibilities through active engagement with issues concerning social justice, global solidarity, sustainable development and so on. Inner peace informed by Daoism means little to one who refuses to act in the world. For example, PE in line with Daoism can be applied to mitigate the burnout sustained by activists fighting for social justice movements (see Bai, Voulgaris, and Williams [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref143">6</reflink>]; Gorski [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref144">24</reflink>]). It can also be applied to individuals – whether oppressed peoples or their allies – to help them heal from trauma, grief or depression when they take action against oppression and injustice (such as the Black Lives Matter activists; see more at https://blacklivesmatter.com/). In these two cases, inner peace is like the water that stills within the turbulence. Indeed, given how unlikely it is that society will be completely free from all forms of oppression and objective violence (e.g. systemic racism), it is essential to critically examine the way they exist and find ways to diminish them (see, e.g., Low [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref145">42</reflink>], 12; Magee and Kabat-Zinn [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref146">45</reflink>], 58; Mills [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref147">49</reflink>]). Thus, inner spiritual transcendence is unseparated from and complementary to external systemic transformation if we want everyone to flourish without excluding the vulnerable. As forcefully argued by Wang ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref148">71</reflink>]), 'without cultivating inner freedom within the individual, institutional procedures do not necessarily lead to a common welfare' (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref149">8</reflink>).</p> <p>In this way, PE can be integrated with individual-oriented practices (e.g. mindfulness-based meditation, breathing and focus training) to help students stay in the present and let go of emotional turbulence (see Bai and Cohen [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref150">5</reflink>]; R. King [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref151">33</reflink>]; McIntosh [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref152">47</reflink>], 42). Yet, it should not be reduced to meditative practices alone. Without reflecting on the macro and micro factors of social injustice and taking action to address them, inner peace intervention makes individuals passive receivers of social inequality and violence (Duane et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref153">15</reflink>]). PE must equip students with knowledge and thinking skills to critically evaluate social factors that cause the violation of human rights and inner spiritual suffering. This nicely aligns with the leading goals of the <emph>cognitive</emph> domain of GCE, and integrates intra-personal and interpersonal peace. As remarked by McIntosh ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref154">47</reflink>]),</p> <p>School systems face issues around equity that cannot be solved with mindfulness alone, and underlying questions about causes of systemic trauma and stress in our society must be interrogated so that racism and oppression can be addressed at their roots, and equity can be targeted as the key issue. (<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref155">34</reflink>)</p> <p>Again, Daoist inner peace cannot be separated from identifying and acting against systemic oppression and injustice. In the following section, I will demonstrate how a Daoist account of inner peace can help develop students' thinking and emotional skills in confronting social injustice like racial inequality.</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-10">Examining inner non-peacefulness through three questions</hd> <p>Amidst 'chaotic' situations of social injustice, inner disharmony often appears, leading to activist burnout in social justice movements, depression arising from confronting with dehumanising oppressive actors, and anger or grief associated with harms and deaths caused by agents of state violence (e.g. police, military) (see Bai, Voulgaris, and Williams [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref156">6</reflink>]; Gorski [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref157">24</reflink>];R. King [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref158">33</reflink>]; Magee [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref159">44</reflink>]). Zhuangzi encourages us to critically reflect on the nature of the external things that we depend on but disturb our inner peace. As discussed in the previous section, our emotional state can be modified by external things we depend on, and these external things could be dependent on some other things as well. More importantly, some of the external dependencies are necessary and should be accepted 'with ease', while some are unnecessary and avoidable. By reflecting on the nature of these external dependencies, we become mindful of our inner self and predispose ourselves towards non-coercive treatment of our emotional changes. Such a Daoist approach to paying attention to our inner emotional and spiritual world also resonates with the contemporary findings on cognitive reappraisal, a form of emotion regulation commonly used to manage and reduce negative emotions by reframing one's interpretation of potential emotion-eliciting events. It is argued that cognitive reappraisal plays a key role in diminishing negative emotion experience and negative emotion behavioural expression (see Brockman et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref160">7</reflink>]; Cutuli [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref161">11</reflink>]), which contributes to developing both intrapersonal and interpersonal peace.</p> <p>Take the anger associated with racial injustice for example. PE teachers can be encouraged to reflect on three questions with their students when they practice inner peace building through a Daoist lens. The first question is as follows: <emph>What does the anger mean for the individuals?</emph> When one becomes angry because of racism, one's inner world is disrupted by racial discrimination, inequality or violence. This implies that one's inner self is dependent on racial justice. Then, this should be followed by the second question: <emph>Are individuals' dependence on racial justice necessary or removable?</emph> Whether based on global agreement or global reality, the answer is certainly yes. For instance, it is well known that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) obliges states to respect, protect and fulfill human rights, ensuring justice and fairness worldwide. Given the increasing global mobility in the contemporary world, it is undoubted that people want to and should live together peacefully regardless of racial differences. Those who suffer from racism and those who are in solidarity with them become angry at racial violence because it devalues the inherent dignity that exists beyond racial differences (Tan [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref162">61</reflink>]). When it comes to Daoism, even though both the <emph>Dao De Jing</emph> and the <emph>Zhuangzi</emph> do not establish systematic accounts of racial justice, they are nevertheless strong advocates of the equality underlying differences and diversity (Dang [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref163">12</reflink>]; Tan [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref164">61</reflink>]). It is evident that racial justice is essential particularly for the functioning of multi-cultural societies, and that the anger resulting from the absence of racial justice is as natural as Cook Ding's anxiety in cutting complicated joints. Thus, both racial justice and anti-racist anger cannot simply be removed and discarded like 'the snake's skin or the cicada's shell'. This cognitive reappraisal further indicates that Zhuangzi does not encourage expressive suppression for emotion regulation when the emotional status is <emph>natural</emph> and <emph>unavoidable</emph>. According to modern research, expressive suppression aimed at deliberately inhibiting outward expression of emotional states leads to increased stress and a potential decrease in emotional well-being (see Brockman et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref165">7</reflink>]; Cutuli [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref166">11</reflink>]). The last question for students to reflect on is as follows: <emph>Does racial justice depend on something else?</emph> As mentioned above, racial justice heavily depends on systemic, institutional and structural equality from the top-down. From the bottom-up, individuals' attitudes to differences and diversity are important for racial justice, but students need to know that individual attitudes are heavily impacted by the broader system.</p> <p>After going through these three questions, students should be able to understand that the anger arising from racial injustice relies on our dependence on social justice, and that racial justice is essential and heavily dependent on systemic justice. This is a process of cognitive reappraisal that benefits students' emotional regulation. This can largely contribute to nurturing their critical thinking skills and socio-emotional skills in confronting social injustice, fulfilling the GCE goals in the <emph>cognitive</emph> and <emph>socio-emotional</emph> domains. Simply put, students develop their awareness of the nature of emotional turbulence as well as the nature of the 'chaos' – the systemic oppression – that causes emotional turbulence.</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-11">Maintaining inner peace while living with non-peacefulness</hd> <p>Equipped with a critical understanding of the nature of external things that disturb our inner peace, teachers and students are then encouraged to work on a non-coercive treatment of the non-peacefulness according to Daoism. To continue with the case of anger, since anger at social injustice is natural, it should be accepted just as Cook Ding accepts and manages his anxiety (cf. the 'Compassion for Monsters Within' in Bai, Voulgaris, and Williams [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref167">6</reflink>]). Cook Ding confronts a novel and complicated joint much like social justice activists confronting social injustice. Despite the anxiety, Cook Ding still fixes his eyes on the complicated joint and moves the cleaver slowly until the part is separated. Such emotions, like anger in response to social injustice or Cook Ding's anxiety, are natural responses to their respective situations. By embracing these emotional responses rather than resisting them, one can remain attentive to the circumstances and perform more effectively (see Jackson [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref168">29</reflink>], 8). Therefore, without artificially suppressing himself, Cook Ding allows the anxiety to emerge when he encounters a complication and to fade away after the task is completed. His satisfaction is fulfilled through the co-existence between anxiety and cutting, whereby both the cutting and the treatment of the emotion are non-coercive.</p> <p>The co-existence of Cook Ding's emotion and action is partially echoed by Myisha Cherry in her book <emph>The Case for Rage: Why Anger is Essential to Anti-racist Struggle</emph>. In this book, Myisha Cherry ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref169">10</reflink>], 23) argues for the positive role of good anger (which she calls 'Lordean rage') in confronting social injustices like racism. 'Lordean rage' refers to fighting against social injustice on the one hand, and on the other hand, being respectful of one's angry emotion (Cherry [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref170">10</reflink>], 34). This anti-racist anger seeks to transform the energy of anger into powerful actions for social justice rather than to fight for personal victory by seeking for revenge or other victims. Since people in the former scenario do not treat anger as purely bad according to an artificial judgement of the good and bad emotions, they still focus on addressing the social injustice, whereas people within the latter context do not consider anger to be good and thus must look for opportunities to get rid of it – normally through transiting it to other innocent people. As Cherry remarks: 'Lordean rage aims for this kind of change – not destruction of the good or elimination of the other, but change in racist beliefs, expectations, policies, and behaviours that shape and support white supremacy' (<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref171">24</reflink>).</p> <p>Cook Ding's non-coercive treatment of the natural but unpleasant emotion, as well as Cherry's proposal for anti-racist anger, illuminate how students can embrace their emotional responses (like anger at racism) without evaluative judgement of good and bad so that they can still attentively focus on acting to transform social injustice rather than internally exhaust themselves by fighting against supposedly 'bad' feelings. Clearly, Daoist inner peace is not about urging detachment from things that cause feelings of discomfort, but rather about critically contemplating the nature of the contexts and modifying one's emotional response to them in a non-coercive way. Modern research has showcased the harmful effect of admonishing or repressing 'negative' emotions like anger (see N. Fraser [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref172">18</reflink>]; Jackson [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref173">28</reflink>], Chapter 9). As Jackson ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref174">28</reflink>]) puts it,</p> <p>Seen within a social context and in circumstances of inequity and social injustice, intolerance of anger and related pleas for sustained (constant) smiling civility, no matter what, can communicate to others lack of interest or concern with their plights and challenges, sliding into dismissal of diverse experiences and views, and the potential neglect of harms and injustices. (<reflink idref="bib185" id="ref175">185</reflink>)</p> <p>Together with modern scholars like Cherry and Jackson, Daoists calls for a critical examination of one's emotions and the relationship with systemic oppression and power inequality.</p> <p>While there are good reasons for feeling anger in the face of social injustices, students also need to be careful of anger that may increase the propensity for violent aggression. In other words, while Cook Ding's non-coercive treatment of the anxiety or Cherry's Lordean rage is positive reactions to external constraints, it is also common for people to be easily overtaken by their emotions and subsequently perpetuate oppression and violence. Unsurprisingly, scholars have found that anger is frequently associated with and accompanied by violence (see Obaidi et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref176">52</reflink>]). When some forms of impulsive anger are transmitted (not transformed) from one person to another, social injustice and violence are liable to be extended to more innocent people, as seen for instance in phenomena like 'rogue rage', 'wipe rage', 'ressentiment rage' and 'narcissistic rage' discussed by Cherry ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref177">10</reflink>], 16–23). Cherry ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref178">10</reflink>]) explains: a person with rogue rage blames almost everyone for his or her unjust experiences; with wipe rage, people who are unemployed in America blame immigrants from Mexico for taking their jobs; an indigenous person who has ressentiment rage will be angry at all white people; and Black elites have narcissistic rage only because their perceived exemption status has not been taken seriously rather than because the white supremacy exploits and oppresses Black people. In these cases, anti-racist anger aimed at promoting social justice has been violently transformed to an impulsive and self-centred anger that produces more social injustice. As mentioned, these reactive types of anger are often held by people who are only interested in defending their own turf rather than fighting against oppression and violence. As unnecessary and avoidable emotional turbulence, they can hinder revolutionary justice if they are not channelled properly. Thus, an absence of inner peace can not only engender further violence but also blinds people (some even with good intentions) from taking action wisely and finding a 'nonviolent resolution to conflict' – one of the main goals of PE (Fried [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref179">19</reflink>], 26).</p> <p>As such, PE teachers play an important role in helping students recognise impulsive self-centred anger and their consequences, and at the same time inhibiting them from transiting anger by keeping their focus on acting for social justice (see R. King [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref180">33</reflink>]). This further implies that inner peace building and PE are closely related to emotion education (see Jackson [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref181">28</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref182">29</reflink>]) and social justice education (such as anti-racism education), especially on equipping students with knowledge, values, attitudes and skills for non-violent but transformative civic participation. A visual framework of using Daoist inner peace to confront social injustice and its embodiment of the three domains of GCE can be found in Figure 1.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. A visual framework of using Daoist inner peace to confront social injustice</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-12">Conclusion</hd> <p>Daoist inner peace entails the spiritual freedom and emotional equanimity that emerges from turmoil. This inner peace is nurtured within social engagement rather than through social withdrawal, illuminating an ethically responsible approach to confronting social injustice. To summarise, we can see how a Daoist approach to inner peace illuminates PE and GCE in various ways. Firstly, it augments students' inner peace cultivation beyond individual-oriented practices by requiring students to actively engage with social injustice that contributes to their inner disharmony. This further requires students to have a better understanding of the social injustice highly relevant to individuals' inner non-peacefulness, which perfectly responds to the <emph>cognitive</emph> and <emph>behavioural</emph> goals of GCE, as well as integrating intra-personal and interpersonal peace building. Secondly, Daoist inner peace building helps students become mindful of the nature of their emotions such as anger caused by racial oppression. Students can come to realise that anti-racist anger is natural and necessary but must be transformed into social justice movements rather than self-centred defence. Lastly, students are also suggested to be cautioned of the destructive forms of emotions that may drive them to transmit (say) impulsive anger from one victim of social injustice to even more innocent people. These last two points highlight the need for critically examining the nature of our emotions and living with the non-peacefulness for fighting against social injustice. It is clear that they can contribute to developing students' thinking and emotional skills, as proposed by the <emph>cognitive</emph> and <emph>socio-emotional</emph> domain of GCE. Suffice to say, human wellbeing as a holistic concept not only consists of political and sociocultural, physical and mental needs, but also spiritual and emotional peacefulness nurtured inside the self. This inner peace informed by Daoism can lead to a more peaceful inner world and subsequently a more peaceful interpersonal relationship with the outside world.</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-13">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>It is a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance we have received from Dr Aidan Nathan for comment and suggestion in writing this article. We are also grateful to the editors and anonymous reviewers for their useful comments.</p> <hd id="AN0192434879-14">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0192434879-15"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> APCEIU. 2021. Peace Education in Northeast Asia: A Situational Analysis. https://<ulink href="http://www.unescoapceiu.org/post/4373?ckattempt=1">www.unescoapceiu.org/post/4373?ckattempt=1</ulink>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Bai, H. 2015. 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The Complete Writings. Indianapolis : Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Jing Dang and Remy Low</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Jing Dang is an early career researcher graduated from the University of Sydney. She has taught traditional Chinese culture and philosophy in both Australia and China, and her research interests center on Chinese philosophy, philosophy of education and global citizenship education. Presently, she is conducting research on applying Daoism to global citizenship education, including education on anti-racism, social justice, peacebuilding and sustainable development.</p> <p>Remy Low is Senior Lecturer in the University of Sydney's School of Education and Social Work. Their research centres on two themes: first, Remy examines the social factors that shape experiences of education; second, they explore practices that foster responsiveness among educators and educational leaders, including creative and contemplative practices from different traditions.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib534" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref86"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref95"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref98"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref100"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref114"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref116"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib393" firstref="ref118"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref121"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref122"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref133"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref134"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref136"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref137"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref138"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref140"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref144"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref146"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref147"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref151"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref153"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref161"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref162"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref169"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref173"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib185" firstref="ref175"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl69" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref176"></nolink> |
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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Daoist Inner Peace, Social Justice and Peace Education – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jing+Dang%22">Jing Dang</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4465-9387">0000-0003-4465-9387</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Remy+Low%22">Remy Low</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3182-251X">0000-0003-3182-251X</externalLink>) – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Peace+Education%22"><i>Journal of Peace Education</i></searchLink>. 2026 23(1):1-23. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 23 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2026 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Descriptive – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Philosophy%22">Philosophy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peace%22">Peace</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Justice%22">Social Justice</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Citizenship+Education%22">Citizenship Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spiritual+Development%22">Spiritual Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Development%22">Social Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethics%22">Ethics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Relationship%22">Interpersonal Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Responsibility%22">Social Responsibility</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/17400201.2025.2495755 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 1740-0201<br />1740-021X – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: This article draws on Daoist ideas to explore peace education (PE) with reference to global citizenship education (GCE). A Daoist account of inner peace, characterised by spiritual freedom and emotional equanimity, can illuminate how to nurture 'peace thinkers' for a more peaceful, just and sustainable world. This article begins with a critical review of the current PE dominated by inter-peace building notwithstanding the increasing demand for intra-peace building. This is followed by an explication of Daoist inner peace, namely (1) inner peace through social engagement rather than social withdrawal, (2) the dependence on external things that disrupt our inner peace, and (3) the need to live with the inevitable to avoid emotional upheaval. The article then goes on to discuss how PE informed by Daoist inner peace can provide a non-violent method for confronting social injustice, all the while addressing the cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioural goals of GCE. This Daoist approach augments students' inner peace by encouraging them to fulfil their ethical responsibilities through actively redressing social injustice. More importantly, students learn to be mindful of the nature of the emotions evoked by social injustice and not be distracted by destructive emotions such as reactive and impulsive anger. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2026 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1505455 |
| PLink | https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1505455 |
| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/17400201.2025.2495755 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 23 StartPage: 1 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Philosophy Type: general – SubjectFull: Peace Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Justice Type: general – SubjectFull: Citizenship Education Type: general – SubjectFull: Spiritual Development Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Development Type: general – SubjectFull: Ethics Type: general – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Relationship Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Responsibility Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Daoist Inner Peace, Social Justice and Peace Education Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Jing Dang – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Remy Low IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 01 Type: published Y: 2026 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 1740-0201 – Type: issn-electronic Value: 1740-021X Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 23 – Type: issue Value: 1 Titles: – TitleFull: Journal of Peace Education Type: main |
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