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Latino Family Engagement and Student Outcomes in Early Elementary School: Evidence from Two National Datasets

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Title: Latino Family Engagement and Student Outcomes in Early Elementary School: Evidence from Two National Datasets
Language: English
Authors: Christa Mulker Greenfader (ORCID 0000-0001-9438-7995), Elizabeth B. Miller
Source: Journal of Latinos and Education. 2025 24(3):701-720.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 20
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Early Childhood Education
Kindergarten
Primary Education
Preschool Education
Descriptors: Elementary School Students, Kindergarten, Children, Longitudinal Studies, Surveys, Early Intervention, Experience, Preschool Education, Family (Sociological Unit), Latin Americans, Family Involvement, Family Environment, Low Income, Family Relationship, School Activities, Home Study
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey, Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey
DOI: 10.1080/15348431.2024.2413534
ISSN: 1534-8431
1532-771X
Abstract: Family engagement in children's schooling is important. Research indicates that Latino families often utilize home-based practices (e.g. reading, telling stories, singing, counting) over school-based involvement (e.g. participating in school events and committees, volunteering in the classroom). Using an assets-based approach, the present study considers both school- and home-based forms of engagement for Latino families. Drawing upon data from two large, nationally representative datasets, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011; N = 4,590) and the Head Start Impact Study (HSIS; N = 1,670), this study seeks to examine national patterns of Latino family school- and home-based engagement in kindergarten, and how such engagement relates to child academic, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes in early elementary school. Descriptive findings show high levels of Latino family participation in a variety of both home-based academic activities and school-based activities. Regression analyses indicate an association between Latino family engagement and child outcomes, most evident in school-based engagement. Implications for educators, schools, and research are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1506350
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0186082871;hd001jun.25;2025Jun24.02:23;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0186082871-1">Latino Family Engagement and Student Outcomes in Early Elementary School: Evidence from Two National Datasets </title> <p>Family engagement in children's schooling is important. Research indicates that Latino families often utilize home-based practices (e.g. reading, telling stories, singing, counting) over school-based involvement (e.g. participating in school events and committees, volunteering in the classroom). Using an assets-based approach, the present study considers both school- and home-based forms of engagement for Latino families. Drawing upon data from two large, nationally representative datasets, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010–11 (ECLS-K:2011; N = 4,590) and the Head Start Impact Study (HSIS; N = 1,670), this study seeks to examine national patterns of Latino family school- and home-based engagement in kindergarten, and how such engagement relates to child academic, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes in early elementary school. Descriptive findings show high levels of Latino family participation in a variety of both home-based academic activities and school-based activities. Regression analyses indicate an association between Latino family engagement and child outcomes, most evident in school-based engagement. Implications for educators, schools, and research are discussed.</p> <p>Keywords: Latino students; family engagement; parent-school involvement; elementary; achievement</p> <p>Family engagement in children's schooling supports their academic, cognitive, and socioemotional development (Epstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref1">19</reflink>]; Hoffman et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref2">33</reflink>]; Jeynes, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref3">34</reflink>]; Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref4">43</reflink>]; Pyle et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref5">55</reflink>]), and the early years of a child's schooling are an important time for building family–school relationships (Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref6">43</reflink>]; Melzi et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref7">49</reflink>]; Sibley & Dearing, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref8">60</reflink>]). Children whose parents report being involved in their school demonstrate greater social competence and academic achievement than children of parents with lower levels of school contact (Epstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref9">19</reflink>]; Hoffman et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref10">33</reflink>]; Jeynes, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref11">34</reflink>]; Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref12">43</reflink>]; Pyle et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref13">55</reflink>]). Yet, these engagement behaviors tend to look different depending on parents' cultural values and beliefs about the best way to support their children's learning (Hill, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref14">32</reflink>]).</p> <p>Latinos comprise a large and growing population in U.S. schools, representing nearly 30% of K-12 students (National Center for Education Statistics, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref15">52</reflink>]), yet research demonstrates that Latino families face racial, educational, linguistic, and sociocultural barriers to their engagement in schools (Cross et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref16">13</reflink>]; Gaitan, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref17">23</reflink>]; Soutullo et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref18">62</reflink>]; Turney & Kao, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref19">66</reflink>]), limiting access to these formal opportunities. Unsurprisingly, therefore, Latino families with low incomes in particular tend to score lower on measures of school engagement in comparison with other racial and ethnic groups (Cooper et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref20">12</reflink>]; Lahaie, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref21">37</reflink>]; Morales-Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref22">51</reflink>]; Sibley & Dearing, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref23">60</reflink>]) and instead utilize home-based forms of engagement over direct school contact, which are largely informal and invisible to school officials (Auerbach, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref24">6</reflink>]; García Coll et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>]; Morales-Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref26">51</reflink>]). Because of the link between family engagement and child outcomes, it is essential to identify ways to encourage and support Latino family engagement during early schooling, while being responsive to their cultural and linguistic needs. Thus, the purpose of the current study is to extend prior research to identify patterns of early Latino family engagement in both school- and home-based academic activities on a national level. Using predictive linear regression models, it further seeks to explore the relationship between family engagement and children's academic, cognitive, and behavioral skills in the early elementary grades.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-2">Defining the label "Latino" and family engagement</hd> <p>Beginning with the Nixon administration and the coining of the term "Hispanic," there have been many panethnic labels used to refer to people of Latin American descent (García, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref27">24</reflink>]). Despite historical resistance to using such panethnic labels and standardized terminology due to racism on behalf of the U.S. government (see Gimenez, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref28">26</reflink>]), with resistance continuing until today (Díaz & Díaz, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref29">14</reflink>]), other research demonstrates increasing willingness of participants to identify with such panethnic labels in the U.S. (Cadava, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref30">10</reflink>]; Martínez & Gonzalez, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref31">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref32">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>The term "Latino" has particularly increased in popularity to operationalize a group of people whose national origins, race, religion, and language are diverse, yet largely experience unitary treatment in the U.S. The label Latino further recognizes the historical political role the U.S. has played in Latin America (García, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref33">24</reflink>]; Hayes-Bautista & Chapa, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref34">31</reflink>]). As such, we have opted to use this term for our study, fully acknowledging the limitations of an imposed monolithic label.</p> <p>Further, the concept of family engagement has been defined in many ways in the literature, including varying differences in terminology (e.g., family engagement, parent involvement, home-school connections, family–school partnerships; Kim & Sheridan, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref35">36</reflink>]). According to the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), family engagement focuses on culturally and linguistically responsive relationship-building with key family members in a child's life; it defines family engagement as an interactive process through which program staff, family members, and their children build positive relationships and work together toward the goals that families choose for themselves and their children (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref36">68</reflink>]).</p> <p>Most research studies on family engagement have focused on school-based participation (Ceballo et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref37">11</reflink>]; Lee et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref38">40</reflink>]), employing a "bake sale" model of activities in which parents can volunteer or participate (Kanaya & Santiago, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref39">35</reflink>]). Such school-based involvement activities are more easily visible to school teachers and administrators. Nonetheless, the current study takes a more expansive conceptualization of family engagement including support for children's education both at home and in school.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-3">Links with academic and social outcomes</hd> <p>Robust evidence has demonstrated that children whose parents report being actively engaged in their education demonstrate greater academic achievement (e.g., high-school graduation rates, standardized test scores, grades); motivation; social competence; and fewer behavior problems than children of parents with lower levels of engagement (Epstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref40">19</reflink>]; Hoffman et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref41">33</reflink>]; Jeynes, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref42">34</reflink>]; LeFevre & Shaw, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref43">41</reflink>]; Park & Holloway, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref44">54</reflink>]; Pyle et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref45">55</reflink>]). These findings hold across all racial and ethnic groups (Altschul, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref46">4</reflink>]; Hoffman et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref47">33</reflink>]; Jeynes, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref48">34</reflink>]; Melzi et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>]; Mendez, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>]) and across all age groups of children from preschool (Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref51">43</reflink>]; Pyle et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref52">55</reflink>]) to elementary school (El Nokali et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref53">18</reflink>]) to adolescence (Park & Holloway, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref54">54</reflink>]; Simpkins et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref55">61</reflink>]).</p> <p>One possible mechanism for these findings is that when parents engage in educational activities with their children, such as volunteering in school, they signal to their children that education is important with clear expectations for achievement and competence. That is, contact with the school helps promote engagement at home. It further helps parents integrate school curriculum goals with home routines and provides parents with a means of social control; involved parents get to know other parents, teachers, and administrators and can discuss their children with them. Family engagement may also help improve parent–child relationship quality, as seminal research has documented that the time parents spend with their children has implications over the life course (Sroufe, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref56">63</reflink>]). Lastly, engaged parents model positive feelings toward learning and school (Domina, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref57">15</reflink>]). Children then internalize these specific academic and social goals to the benefit of their performance (Kanaya & Santiago, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref58">35</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-4">Family engagement among latino families with Low Incomes</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186082871-5">Barriers to school-based engagement</hd> <p>Though traditionally not as studied in the literature, there is growing research based on family engagement in Latino families in particular (e.g., Altschul, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref59">4</reflink>]; Cooper et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref60">12</reflink>]; Lahaie, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref61">37</reflink>]; Lee et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref62">40</reflink>]; C. M. McWayne et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref63">48</reflink>]; Morales-Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref64">51</reflink>]; Palacios & García Coll, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref65">53</reflink>]; Suizzo et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref66">64</reflink>]). In line with the aforementioned traditional "bake sale" model of school activities, most of this body of work has compared levels of family engagement primarily in school, and to a lesser extent at home, across racial and ethnic groups. Using such a narrow and limited conception of engagement, these studies unsurprisingly find that, in general, Latino families with low incomes score lower on measures of engagement than do other racial and ethnic groups. For example, Latino families with low incomes were found to be less likely to participate in school-based activities and to enroll their children in enrichment activities outside of school (Cooper et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref67">12</reflink>]) and were also less likely to participate in home-based engagement activities, such as reading books, though their educational aspirations for their children were quite high (Morales-Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref68">51</reflink>]; Sibley & Dearing, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref69">60</reflink>]).</p> <p>Yet, this line of research does not paint a complete picture as many Latino families with low incomes face educational, linguistic, sociocultural, and structural barriers to their participation in school (Cross et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref70">13</reflink>]; Gaitan, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref71">23</reflink>]; Soutullo et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref72">62</reflink>]; Turney & Kao, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref73">66</reflink>]). For example, the majority of Latino children of immigrants have at least one parent with limited English proficiency (Winsler et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref74">72</reflink>]). This presents challenges in that parents and teachers may have issues actually communicating, or parents may feel uncomfortable or display a lack of confidence in participating in school given their low levels of English proficiency. Additionally, many Latino parents work long hours or have non-traditional work schedules (Gaitan, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref75">23</reflink>]), not allowing time for them to participate in school-based activities despite their desire to do so. Further, Latino, and particularly immigrant, parents often have expectations for schools and education based on their own educational experiences in their home country. This often may not align with mainstream U.S. expectations and can lead parents to feeling isolated or not welcomed in schools (Gaitan, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref76">23</reflink>]; Morales-Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref77">51</reflink>]; Sibley & Dearing, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref78">60</reflink>]). Lastly, parents who are undocumented may be less likely to participate in school-based activities due to school policies that require certain documents for parent volunteers and/or feelings of mistrust and fear of deportation if their status is disclosed (Cross et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref79">13</reflink>]; Soutullo et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref80">62</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-6">Home-based engagement</hd> <p>Resultantly, these barriers may prompt many Latino families to instead utilize home-based forms of engagement over direct school contact. Such activities include providing advice through cultural narratives and teachings, emphasizing proper behavior, helping with homework, and excusing children from other duties to do school work (Auerbach, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref81">6</reflink>]; Billings, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref82">8</reflink>]; Ceballo et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref83">11</reflink>]; Goldsmith & Robinson Kurpuis, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref84">28</reflink>]). These more home-based forms of engagement, however, are largely informal and invisible to school teachers and administrators (Auerbach, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref85">6</reflink>]; García Coll et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref86">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>In recognition of the complexity of family engagement in Latino families in particular, a few studies have focused on new measures and conceptualizations. C. McWayne et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref87">46</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref88">47</reflink>]), for example, have developed the Parental Engagement of Families from Latino Backgrounds (PEFL-English) and <emph>Participación Educativa de Familias Latinas</emph> (PEFL-Spanish). The PEFL is a 65-item measure designed to incorporate both school and home-based forms of engagement through four factors – foundational education, supplemental education, future-oriented teaching, and school participation. Items are rated on a four-point temporal scale from 1 (<emph>Never/Nunca</emph>) to 4 (<emph>Frequently/Frecuentemente</emph>), and the overall scale has been developed and validated with Latino Head Start families in the U.S. (<emph>α</emph> = 0.63–0.77), with predictive validity around family engagement practices (C. M. McWayne et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref89">48</reflink>]). Importantly, the PEFL helps to uncover the substantial heterogeneity in Latino families around engagement, and through better measurement, challenges deficit narratives positing that since Latino families' involvement is less visible in the school setting, they do not care about their children's education (T. Durand & Perez, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref90">17</reflink>]).</p> <p>Sabol et al. ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref91">58</reflink>]) also challenged traditional measures of engagement that focus on school-based involvement, and instead highlighted how services such as parenting classes and family support can nurture the home environment and family interactions that in turn can relate to children's educational outcomes. The authors also suggested that school-based activities can be considered "light touch" as they do not directly improve the home environment and family interactions, but rather signal parental value of education, which may have an indirect impact on the home environment.</p> <p>Beyond measurement, new conceptualizations of home-based engagement strategies also challenge more traditional "bake sale" models of engagement. In a small qualitative study of semi-structured interviews with 11 Mexican immigrant parents, Goldsmith and Robinson Kurpuis ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref92">28</reflink>]) conducted a strengths-based study examining parental engagement from the perspective of parents. Parent engagement was largely home-based and stemmed from unrealized dreams to pursue their own education, the belief that there are opportunities in the U.S. for those who succeed academically, and a desire to help their children achieve their dreams. Parents reported helping their children in ways that reflected traditional Latino home-based strategies and approaches to parent involvement. This included providing the basic necessities, setting homework routines and high expectations for academic success, using their personal stories to motivate and encourage their children to succeed in school, and prohibiting their children from working so they could focus on their studies. These informal strengths-based strategies helped children internalize the values of education and academic goals with high levels of engagement. In another study of 34 Latino mother-child dyads, Kanaya and Santiago ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref93">35</reflink>]) reaffirmed the importance of oral storytelling as a promising avenue to increase family engagement and help parents increase academic skills at home.</p> <p>The current study draws upon these more inclusive and culturally responsive approaches, conceptualizing family engagement as a multifaceted construct in which families engage in children's education at home and in school, that in turn, contribute to children's learning and development (e.g., C. M. McWayne & Melzi, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref94">47</reflink>]; C. McWayne et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref95">46</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref96">48</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-7">Theoretical framework</hd> <p>The current study is grounded in Bronfenbrenner's ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref97">9</reflink>]), which views one's environments as important contexts for development and considers multiple layers of influences – both direct and indirect – on how a child learns and develops. Bronfenbrenner defines the most proximal environments to a person as <emph>microsystems</emph>. Two of the most powerful microsystems for a child are their families and classrooms; each have direct impacts on the academic, cognitive, socioemotional, and physical skills of the developing child. According to Bronfenbrenner's model, an additional layer of influence is created if two of these environments intersect. This resulting <emph>mesosystem</emph> further reinforces the impacts of the microsystems, as it signals an alignment of values and consistency of practice between two of the individual's key environments. Family engagement in children's schooling connects families with teachers and classrooms. Both school- and home-based family engagement are thus represented in the mesosystem, making the ecological systems framework particularly useful when examining family engagement in educational settings and the role that such engagement plays in children's development. Indeed, as noted above, previous research has indicated the value of family engagement in schools to children's academic achievement, behaviors, and attitudes.</p> <p>The outermost layer of Bronfenbrenner's model consists of the <emph>macrosystem</emph>, which offers indirect influences on a person's development. Culture has traditionally been placed here; however, Vélez-Agosto et al. ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref98">70</reflink>]) challenge this conceptualization, arguing that instead culture – with its pervasive influence on home processes, practices, and perceptions – should be included in one's <emph>microsystem</emph>. Certainly, when considering the ethnic and cultural variation in a process such as family engagement in schools, and how different groups exhibit a wide range of family engagement practices and approaches, it may be prudent to consider culture within the microsystem. Using this reconceptualization enables a more asset-based, culturally responsive means in which to conceptualize family engagement, rather than a limited and narrow view of family engagement.</p> <p>Further, we recognize the assets that Latino families across the nation exemplify and thus draw upon Yosso's ([<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref99">74</reflink>]) framework of Community Cultural Wealth (CCW). CCW highlights the assets nurtured in families of color through six interrelated forms of cultural capital: aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic, familial, and resistant capital (Yosso, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref100">74</reflink>]). Previous studies have explored the relationships between CCW and Latino family engagement in and support of their children's academic pursuits (Aragon, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref101">5</reflink>]; Guzmán et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref102">30</reflink>]; Larrotta & Yamamura, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref103">39</reflink>]), most often noting the role of aspirational and familial capital. Aspirational capital pertains to high aspirations and expectations for the future, despite barriers that may be present. Indeed, Latinos report high educational aspirations and expectations for their children (Goldenberg et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref104">27</reflink>]; Goldsmith & Robinson Kurpuis, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref105">28</reflink>]; Langenkamp, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref106">38</reflink>]; Larrotta & Yamamura, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref107">39</reflink>]). Additionally, family engagement both draws upon and supports familial capital – that is, the value of, connection to, and learning from family (Guzmán et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref108">30</reflink>]; Larrotta & Yamamura, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref109">39</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-8">Present study</hd> <p>The present study contributes to the growing body of work examining Latino family engagement and builds upon research that illustrates such engagement as a key process for children's school readiness and academic success (e.g., Altschul, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref110">4</reflink>]; C. M. McWayne et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref111">48</reflink>]; Mendez, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref112">50</reflink>]), doing so in four important ways. First, many of the existing studies have relied on small observational samples, localized in specific U.S. areas. The current study uses two of the largest, nationally representative datasets available, which allows for a more comprehensive picture of Latino family engagement patterns. Second, replication is one of the most important tools for verification and generalizability in the social sciences (Duncan et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref113">16</reflink>]; Schmidt, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref114">59</reflink>]). By utilizing two datasets, we hope to be able to replicate our findings between studies, allowing for further robustness across nationally representative datasets. Third, in line with more recent research (e.g., C. M. McWayne et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref115">48</reflink>]), the current study utilizes a more inclusive and culturally responsive conceptualization of family engagement that includes home-based practices, and whether child outcomes are associated with such family engagement.</p> <p>Finally, this is the first study to our knowledge to draw upon such large, national datasets to examine family engagement specifically for Latino families. As a result of the unique barriers, these families face with engagement in schools and their subsequent utilization of home-based activities, this study deliberately and consciously avoids racial/ethnic comparative lines of inquiry and instead focuses solely on Latino families and their unique strengths and vulnerabilities in interacting with school systems. Further, as evidenced through research across disciplines recognizing the rich heterogeneity amongst the Latino community – itself an umbrella term often imposed upon participants as part of "othering" (e.g., Alba et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref116">2</reflink>]; Díaz & Díaz, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref117">14</reflink>]; Gimenez, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref118">26</reflink>]; Weinick et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref119">71</reflink>]), this study utilizes additional dimensions to understand the heterogeneity and intersectionality (e.g., immigration status, urbanicity, home language) in the Latino samples of this study.</p> <p>Two main research questions are addressed in this study: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref120">1</reflink>) What are the patterns of Latino family school- and home-based engagement during kindergarten?; and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref121">2</reflink>) How does Latino family engagement relate to their children's academic, cognitive, and behavioral skills in kindergarten and first grade? The first question will elucidate patterns of family engagement for Latinos on a national level, enabling an overview of patterns for this large and increasing population. The second question seeks to replicate previous work indicating a positive connection between family engagement on child outcomes and extends this work to explore the same relations among Latino families. Taken together, these questions shed light on schools' effectiveness in engaging and being responsive to Latino families, and findings from this study may indicate opportunities for improvement in ECE and elementary schools.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-9">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186082871-10">Data sources</hd> <p>Two large, nationally representative datasets are used to address the research questions in this study. The first is the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010–11 (ECLS-K:2011). This study is one of the four longitudinal studies funded by the National Center for Education Statistics that examines child development, school readiness, and school experiences.</p> <p>The second dataset is the Head Start Impact Study (HSIS; U.S. DHHS, 2002–2006), which is a random assignment experiment designed to estimate the impact of Head Start on children's school readiness skills and parenting practices, as well as to determine under what circumstances Head Start achieves its greatest impact (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref122">67</reflink>]). The use of both studies uniquely allowed for a true test of replication (one of the most important analytic tools for external validity in the social sciences; Duncan et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref123">16</reflink>]; Schmidt, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref124">59</reflink>]) across two independent samples of Latino children collected years apart with varying sample sizes.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-11">Early childhood longitudinal study, kindergarten class of 2010–11 (ECLS-K:2011)</hd> <p>The ECLS-K:2011 is a Congressionally mandated, federally funded study that, beginning in 2010–11, followed a nationally representative sample of approximately 18,000 kindergartners through the fifth grade. Students were randomly selected through a three-stage, complex survey design, in which the U.S. was divided into primary sampling units (PSUs) by county. In selecting the final 90 PSUs, the ECLS-K:2011 sought to maximize the heterogeneity within the percentages of 5-year-old Latinos (Tourangeau et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref125">65</reflink>]); Latino students comprise approximately 25% of the original sample. Data were obtained from interviews with parents, self-administered questionnaires completed by teachers and school administrators, and direct assessments of the children. In addition to data on children's academic achievement, executive function skills, and socioemotional behaviors, this dataset also includes detailed information about families, such as SES, ethnic heritage/country of origin, immigrant generational status, family participation in school events and activities, and home academic activities and expectations.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-12">Head Start Impact Study (HSIS)</hd> <p>In the 1998 reauthorization of Head Start, Congress mandated that the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) determine whether the program contributed to key outcomes in children's learning and development. Thus a study was designed to estimate the causal impact of Head Start on children's school readiness skills and parenting practices, as well as determine the circumstances under which Head Start achieved its greatest impact and for which children (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref126">67</reflink>]).</p> <p>The study employed a multi-stage sampling process to select a nationally representative group of Head Start programs and children. The final sample consisted of 84 grantee and delegate agencies and 383 individual centers (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref127">67</reflink>]). Once the centers were selected, a lottery process was used to determine which children were and were not assigned a place in Head Start. In total 4,442 children were randomly selected −2,646 for Head Start and 1,796 for the control condition. Data collection took place from Fall 2002, when the treatment group entered Head Start, until Spring 2006, at the end of first grade (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref128">67</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-13">Sample</hd> <p>From the multi-stage sampling process of both datasets described above representative of all kindergartners in the U.S. in 2010–11 (ECLS-K:2011) and Head Start programs and children in 1998 (HSIS), the population of particular interest in both datasets for this study is Latino children. Thus, the respective analytic samples have been restricted to include children in each dataset whose families self-identified as Latino and are representative of the overall Latino population at the time each dataset was collected. Table 1 provides descriptive characteristics of participants on matched variables from both datasets used in analyses.</p> <p>Table 1. Descriptive statistics of Latino children in analytic samples.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td><italic>ECLS-K:2011</italic> (<italic>N</italic> = 4,590)</td><td><italic>HSIS</italic> (<italic>N</italic> = 1,670)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Mean/Proportion of Sample</td><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td>Mean/Proportion of Sample</td><td><italic>SD</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><bold>Child Demographic Characteristics – Baseline</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Age (months)</td><td>66.89</td><td>4.35</td><td>54.77</td><td>7.23</td></tr><tr><td>Spanish primary language</td><td>0.50</td><td /><td>0.71</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Mexican, Mexican-American, or Chicano</td><td>0.40</td><td /><td>0.58</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Gender – Male</td><td>0.51</td><td /><td>0.52</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Disability</td><td>0.03</td><td /><td>0.11</td><td /></tr><tr><td><bold>Family Demographic Characteristics – Baseline</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Caregiver age (years)</td><td>33.14</td><td>6.90</td><td>29.32</td><td>6.69</td></tr><tr><td>Maternal education</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>High school diploma/GED and beyond</td><td>0.61</td><td /><td>0.45</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Caregiver recent immigrant (<10 years)</td><td>0.37</td><td /><td>0.44</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Teenage mother</td><td>0.24</td><td /><td>0.13</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Both biological parents live together</td><td>0.67</td><td /><td>0.67</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Urbanicity</td><td>0.45</td><td /><td>0.92</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note. N</emph> in ECLS-K:2011 rounded to the nearest 10 in accordance with the requirements for restricted data use.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-14">ECLS-K:2011</hd> <p>Approximately 26% of the children in the ECLS-K:2011 came from families who identified themselves as Latino (<emph>N</emph> = 4,590, rounded to the nearest 10 in accordance with the requirements for the use of the restricted version of the ECLS-K:2011). Half of the sample is male. Approximately 56% of children lived with an immigrant parent: 40% from Mexico, 8% from Central America, 4% from South America, and 4% from the Caribbean, and 43% of parents were born in the U.S. Half of the parents reported Spanish as the primary home language, and approximately 70% indicated they spoke Spanish to any extent at home. Nearly half (48%) of the children attended some center-based preschool. 61% of mothers had received at least a high-school diploma; a more comprehensive measure of socioeconomic status (including parent income, education, and occupational prestige) indicates that this sample was, on average, from low-SES households, as this group was half of a standard deviation below the average SES of the complete ECLS-K:2011 dataset.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-15">HSIS</hd> <p>In line with national Head Start estimates (around 40%; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start, National Center on Parent, Family, and Community Engagement, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref129">69</reflink>]), approximately 38% of the total HSIS child sample (<emph>N</emph> = 1,670) was classified at baseline through self-identification in the parent interview as Latino. While the HSIS provides fewer demographic variables than the ECLS-K:2011, it does provide key information to understand the heterogeneity of Latino children in the sample. Approximately 50% of the Latino children were male, close to 60% were of Mexican Mexican-American, or Chicano heritage, and for over 70% Spanish was their primary home language. In line with Head Start's focus on children with special needs, 11% of Latino children had a diagnosed disability. Forty-five percent of Latino children's mothers had earned a high-school diploma or GED, and 44% had immigrated to the U.S. within the last 10 years.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-16">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186082871-17">Key Independent variables</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186082871-18">School-based activities</hd> <p>In both the ECLS-K:2011 and HSIS, parents were asked about whether they participated in or were involved with several school-based activities since the beginning of the year including back-to-school nights; school events; parent-teacher conferences; and as a volunteer. The ECLS-K:2011 probed an additional four areas: if they belonged to the PTA/PTO; advisory council; a school committee; or participated in a fundraiser. These activities were scored as a dichotomous indicator of <emph>Yes</emph> (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref130">1</reflink>) the parent participated or were involved, or <emph>No</emph> (0) they did not participate or were not involved. We then created a sum score index from the individual dichotomous items.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-19">Home-based activities</hd> <p>In both the ECLS-K:2011 and HSIS, parents were asked about how many times in a typical week they participated in a series of ten activities with their child from <emph>Not at All</emph> (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref131">1</reflink>) to <emph>Every Day</emph> (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref132">4</reflink>). Such activities included telling stories; practicing numbers; playing games or puzzles; reading books; building things; doing arts and science projects; and singing. Also included are such home-based activities that conveyed teaching morals and respect, monitoring behavior, and discipline (Auerbach, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref133">6</reflink>]), such as playing sports together and household chores. Chores are an example of adult activities in which children often learn and develop through observation, guided participation and apprenticeship (Rogoff, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref134">57</reflink>]), and this type of learning and socialization is oftentimes found in Latino families (Fuller & García Coll, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref135">21</reflink>]). As the anchors for the home-based activities were a weekly frequency temporal scale (unlike the school-based activities which probed whether they occurred at all), we created a mean score index to use in our regression analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-20">Primary outcomes</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186082871-21">Academic achievement</hd> <p>Indicators of children's academic achievement were used as a primary outcome of interest. The ECLS-K:2011 used direct assessment to measure children's English reading and math skills. The English reading assessment (<emph>α</emph>=.95) consisted of questions that tested basic skills, such as letter and word recognition, print knowledge, beginning and ending sounds, and rhyming, vocabulary knowledge, and reading comprehension. The math assessment (<emph>α</emph>=.92) measured children's conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and problem solving and included questions about such concepts as number sense, geometry and spatial sense, patterns, measurement, and data analysis. Both academic assessments consisted of two stages, in which an initial routing test determined the level of the second-stage test (low, middle, or high difficulty). For the current analyses, item response theory (IRT) scores are used, which allow for comparisons between children of different ages over time, that have been standardized on the analytic sample.</p> <p>The HSIS administered two standardized assessments of reading and math achievement to all children – the Woodcock-Johnson (WJ) III Basic Reading Composite (<emph>α</emph>=.93) and the WJ III Math Reasoning Composite (<emph>α</emph>=.95; Woodcock et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref136">73</reflink>]). W scores based on IRT were used in all analyses, which indicate a specific child's ability against any age or grade group on a given test.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-22">Behavioral skills</hd> <p>Additional primary outcomes of interest were behavioral and social skills. For the ECLS-K:2011 analyses, we use measures of approaches to learning and externalizing behaviors. Responses for both of these were recorded on a scale from 1 to 4, ranging from <emph>Never</emph> (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref137">1</reflink>) to <emph>Very often</emph> (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref138">4</reflink>), indicating how frequently the child exhibited the behaviors or characteristics. The externalizing behaviors measure was adapted from the Social Skills Rating System (<emph>α</emph>=.95; Gresham & Elliot, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref139">29</reflink>]), which assesses the frequency that the child argues, gets in fights, gets angry, acts impulsively, and disturbs ongoing activities. The approaches to learning measure include seven items assessing how frequently the child: keeps belongings organized; shows eagerness to learn new things; works independently; easily adapts to changes in routine; persists in completing tasks; pays attention well; and follows classroom rules (<emph>α</emph>=.91).</p> <p>The HSIS administered two different scales. The first was the Social Skills and Positive Approaches to Learning, which was developed for the Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES) and asked parents to assess their child's social skills on seven items such as cooperation and empathic behavior (<emph>α</emph>=.65). Parents rated how true each item was of their child from <emph>Not true</emph> (0) to <emph>Very true</emph> (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref140">2</reflink>), for a total score of 0–14 points. The second was a modified version of the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref141">1</reflink>]), in which parents were asked to rate their child's aggressive, hyperactive, and withdrawn behavior on 14 items (<emph>α</emph>=.79). Parents rated how true each item was of their child from <emph>Not true</emph> (0) to <emph>Very true</emph> (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref142">2</reflink>), for a total score of 0–28 points.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-23">Executive function</hd> <p>The ECLS-K:2011 used direct assessment to capture two measures of executive function skills, working memory and cognitive flexibility. The Numbers Reversed subtest of the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (<emph>α</emph>=.87; Woodcock et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref143">73</reflink>]) was used to assess working memory, in which children were asked to repeat an increasingly longer list of numbers in reverse order. The current analyses use <emph>W</emph> scores. The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) was used to assess cognitive flexibility (Frye et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref144">20</reflink>]; <emph>α</emph>=.90; Beck et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref145">7</reflink>]), in which children are tasked with matching cards by rules that change during the game i.e., initially matching by shape, next by color, and then if there is a border. We use the combined scale scores for the three "games" in the current analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-24">Covariates</hd> <p>A matching set of key child and family demographic characteristics from both studies were included in the analyses as covariates. Child covariates included: age in weeks at assessment; gender; and whether Spanish was the primary home language. Family covariates included: caregiver age in years; highest level of maternal education; whether the mother was a recent immigrant to the United States; whether the parent was born in Mexico; an indicator of urbanicity; and two family structure variables including whether both biological parents lived with the child and whether the mother was teenaged at the child's birth.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-25">Analysis plan</hd> <p>A parallel set of analyses, consisting of quantitative descriptive analyses and regression-based methods, was conducted separately on the analytic samples from both datasets, with formal tests of replication at the end.</p> <p>For our first research question in which we seek to determine the patterns of school- and family-based engagement of Latino families, we performed descriptive analyses to examine patterns of parent involvement. We calculated descriptive statistics such as means and standard deviations for levels of family engagement in both school-based and home-based activities. Further, we computed correlations to determine the relationship, if any, between school- and home-based engagement activities. This largely descriptive analysis elucidates national patterns of Latino family engagement as children begin their formal schooling.</p> <p>For our second research question, regression methods were used to examine the relationship between family engagement and academic (reading and math), cognitive (working memory and cognitive flexibility), and behavioral (approaches to learning and externalizing/problem behaviors) outcomes. Regression models included the school-based and home-based indices separately, as well as a host of demographic covariates. Full Information Maximum Likelihood estimation (FIML; Allison, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref146">3</reflink>]) was used in order to account for missing data. FIML works by estimating a likelihood function for each individual based on the variables that are present so that all the available data are used. Thus, the final model was:</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi mathvariant="italic">OUTCOME</mi><mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="italic" /></mrow></mrow><mo>=</mo><mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="italic" /></mrow></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>β</mi><mn>0</mn></msub></mrow><mo>+</mo><mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="italic" /></mrow></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>β</mi><mn>1</mn></msub></mrow><mi mathvariant="italic">ENGAGEMENT</mi><mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="italic" /></mrow></mrow><mo>+</mo><mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="italic" /></mrow></mrow><mi mathvariant="italic">γCOVARIATES</mi><mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="italic" /></mrow></mrow><mo>+</mo><mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="italic" /></mrow></mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="italic">e</mi></mrow><mo>,</mo></math> </ephtml> </p> <p>where <emph>OUTCOME</emph> represents the outcome variable of interest (child's academic, cognitive, or socioemotional skills); <emph>ENGAGEMENT</emph> is the index of either school-based or family-based engagement; <emph>COVARIATES</emph> is the vector of demographic covariates; and <emph>e</emph><subs><emph>t</emph></subs> is an error term. This analysis provides insight into the relationship between family engagement and child outcomes in the early elementary years (<emph>β</emph><subs><emph>1</emph></subs>).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-26">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186082871-27">Descriptive analyses</hd> <p>Table 2 lists the descriptive statistics for each of the items in both the school-based and home-based family engagement indices, and Figures 1 and 2 show the percentages of Latino families who participated in school-based activities and home-based engagement activities daily or almost daily (3–7 times per week). Patterns are similar across datasets. Nearly 90% of parents in both datasets reported attending a parent-teacher conference, followed by large percentages of participation in back-to-school nights, and well over half of parents reported attending a school event.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Percentages of families who reported participating in school-based engagement activities. Data collected in kindergarten for both datasets.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Percentages of families who reported participating in home-based engagement activities 3 – 7 times per week. Data collected in kindergarten for ECLS-K:2011 and 1st grade for HSIS.</p> <p>Table 2. Descriptive statistics of key family engagement variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td><italic>ECLS-K:2011</italic> (<italic>N</italic> = 4,590)</td><td><italic>HSIS</italic> (<italic>N</italic> = 1,670)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Mean/Proportion of Sample</td><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td>Mean/Proportion of Sample</td><td><italic>SD</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><bold>School-Based Engagement: Yes (1)/No (0)</bold></td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Back-to-School Night</td><td>0.76</td><td /><td>0.85</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Parent-Teacher Conference</td><td>0.87</td><td /><td>0.87</td><td /></tr><tr><td>School Event</td><td>0.71</td><td /><td>0.64</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Classroom Volunteer</td><td>0.44</td><td /><td>0.35</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PTO/PTA Meeting</td><td>0.39</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Parent Advisory Group</td><td>0.19</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>School Committee</td><td>0.07</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>School Fundraiser</td><td>0.56</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Index <italic>(ECLS-K:2011: 0-8; HSIS: 0-4)</italic></td><td>3.99</td><td>1.74</td><td>2.14</td><td>1.49</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Home-Based Engagement: Never (1) to Daily (4)</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Tell Stories</td><td>2.86</td><td>0.91</td><td>2.51</td><td>0.92</td></tr><tr><td>Art Projects</td><td>2.77</td><td>0.91</td><td>2.21</td><td>0.96</td></tr><tr><td>Play Games</td><td>2.76</td><td>0.88</td><td>2.45</td><td>0.97</td></tr><tr><td>Nature/Science Projects</td><td>2.16</td><td>0.93</td><td>1.89</td><td>0.86</td></tr><tr><td>Sing Songs</td><td>3.01</td><td>0.96</td><td>2.60</td><td>1.06</td></tr><tr><td>Practice Numbers</td><td>3.47</td><td>0.73</td><td>3.16</td><td>0.93</td></tr><tr><td>Reads Together</td><td>3.12</td><td>0.84</td><td>2.97</td><td>1.01</td></tr><tr><td>Sports</td><td>2.77</td><td>0.91</td><td>2.60</td><td>1.02</td></tr><tr><td>Build Things Together</td><td>2.38</td><td>0.95</td><td>2.00</td><td>0.93</td></tr><tr><td>Household Chores</td><td>2.38</td><td>0.95</td><td>3.09</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>Index</td><td>2.84</td><td>0.51</td><td>2.55</td><td>0.57</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Note. N</emph> in ECLS-K:2011 rounded to the nearest 10 in accordance with the requirements for restricted data use.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-28">ECLS-K:2011</hd> <p>Results from the ECLS-K:2011 indicate that Latino families reported participating in nearly half of the school-based activities (<emph>M=</emph>3.99; <emph>SD=</emph>1.74). A large majority of families attended a parent-teacher conference and back-to-school night (87% and 76%, respectively), whereas they were less likely to participate in other events such as serving on a parent advisory committee (19%) or other school committee (7%). Latino families also reported participating in many home-based engagement activities multiple times per week on average (<emph>M</emph> = 2.14; <emph>SD</emph> = 0.51). In particular, nearly 90% of families reported practicing numbers with their child on multiple days of the week, followed by engaging with them in household chores (69%), singing songs (67%), and reading with them (64%). Latino families reported lesser participation in nature and science projects (29%) and building things together (40%). Finally, given the historically different patterns of engagement for Latino families in school- and home-based settings, the school- and home-based indices were weakly correlated (<emph>r</emph> = 0.27).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-29">HSIS</hd> <p>In the HSIS, Latino families also reported participating in about half of the school-based activities (<emph>M</emph> = 2.14; <emph>SD</emph> = 1.49). Consistent with the findings from the ECLS-K:2011 data, higher percentages of families report participating in a parent-teacher conference (87%) or a back-to-school night (85%) than other school events such as volunteering in the classroom (35%). For home-based engagement, Latino families reporting participating in activities multiple times per week on average (<emph>M</emph> = 2.54, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.57). Again, similar to the ECLS-K:2011 findings, many families reported practicing numbers with their child (73%), reading to their child (64%), or doing household chores (67%) with their child multiple times per week. In contrast, many fewer families reported participating in art projects (32%), nature/science projects (19%), or building things with their child (26%). Lastly, consistent with historical patterns as well as the current ECLS-K:2011 findings, the school- and home-based indices had little correlation (<emph>r</emph> = 0.16).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-30">Regression analyses</hd> <p>The results of the main regression analyses are displayed in Table 3. Standardized coefficients are presented, so outcomes can be directly compared to one another, with robust standard errors in parentheses. Findings from both datasets indicate significant relationships between school-based family engagement activities and most kindergarten and first-grade outcomes and significant connections between home-based activities and a handful of student outcomes.</p> <p>Table 3. Regression results examining the relationship between Latino family engagement and child outcomes.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>School-based activities</td><td>Home-based activities</td></tr><tr><td /><td><italic>ECLS-K:2011</italic></td><td><italic>HSIS</italic></td><td><italic>ECLS:K/HSIS Difference</italic></td><td><italic>ECLS-K:2011</italic></td><td><italic>HSIS</italic></td><td><italic>ECLS:K/HSIS Difference</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><bold>Outcome Variables</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><italic>Kindergarten</italic></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Reading</td><td>0.05***</td><td /><td /><td>0.10**</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td /><td /><td>(0.03)</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Math</td><td>0.07***</td><td /><td /><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Working memory</td><td>0.04***</td><td /><td /><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Cognitive flexibility</td><td>0.04***</td><td /><td /><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Behavior problems</td><td>−0.02+</td><td /><td /><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Approaches to learning</td><td>0.03*</td><td /><td /><td>0.08*</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td /><td /><td>(0.04)</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><italic>First Grade</italic></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Reading</td><td>0.06***</td><td>0.08***</td><td><italic>p</italic> =.37</td><td>0.07+</td><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td>(0.02)</td><td /><td>(0.04)</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Math</td><td>0.07***</td><td>0.05*</td><td><italic>p</italic> =.36</td><td>0.08*</td><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td>(0.02)</td><td /><td>(0.04)</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Working memory</td><td>0.03**</td><td>n/a</td><td /><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td>n/a</td><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Cognitive flexibility</td><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td>n/a</td><td /><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td>n/a</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Behavior problems</td><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td>−0.08***</td><td /><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td>−0.29***</td><td /></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.02)</td><td /><td /><td>(0.04)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Approaches to learning/Social skills</td><td>0.02+</td><td>0.04*</td><td><italic>p</italic> =.35</td><td><italic>NS</italic></td><td>0.41***</td><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.01)</td><td>(0.02)</td><td /><td /><td>(0.04)</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 <emph>Note</emph>. ECLS-K:2011: <emph>N</emph> = 4,590 (rounded to the nearest 10 in accordance with the requirements for restricted data use) – data collected in Spring K & 1st grade; HSIS: <emph>N</emph> = 1,670 - data collected in Spring 1st grade. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Scores are standardized. FIML used in all analyses. Covariates: age, male, Mexican, two biological parents, LM household, teenage mother, maternal education, urbanicity, recent immigrant. <sups>+</sups><emph>p</emph> <.10. *<emph>p</emph> <.05. **<emph>p</emph> <.01. ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. <emph>NS</emph> = not significant.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-31">ECLS-K:2011</hd> <p>Findings from the ECLS-K:2011 analyses indicate school-based family engagement activities are modestly positively associated with all kindergarten outcomes in the expected direction including higher reading (<emph>β</emph> = 0.05, <emph>p</emph> <.001), math (<emph>β</emph> = 0.07, <emph>p</emph> <.05) and working memory (<emph>β</emph> = 0.04, <emph>p</emph> <.001) skills, cognitive flexibility (<emph>β</emph> = 0.04, <emph>p</emph> <.001), better approaches to learning (<emph>β</emph> = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> <.05), and fewer behavior problems (<emph>β</emph>=-0.02, <emph>p</emph> <.10), after controlling for demographic covariates. Many of these patterns persisted in first grade, in which children whose families engaged in school-based activities demonstrated higher reading (<emph>β</emph> = 0.06, <emph>p</emph> <.001), math (<emph>β</emph> = 0.07, <emph>p</emph> <.001), and working memory (<emph>β</emph> = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> <.01) skills and better approaches to learning (<emph>β</emph> = 0.02, <emph>p</emph> <.05). Home-based family engagement was associated with higher kindergarten reading skills (<emph>β</emph> = 0.10, <emph>p</emph> <.01) – a trend that, while marginally significant, continued in first grade (<emph>β</emph> = 0.07, <emph>p</emph> <.10), kindergarten approaches to learning (<emph>β</emph> = 0.08, <emph>p</emph> <.05), and first-grade math skills (<emph>β</emph> = 0.08, <emph>p</emph> <.05), after controlling for demographic covariates; there were no significant associations with the other outcome variables, although all were still in the expected direction.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-32">HSIS</hd> <p>In the HSIS, controlling for other demographic covariates, school-based engagement activities were positively associated with all first-grade outcomes in the expected direction including higher reading (<emph>β</emph> = 0.08, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and math (<emph>β</emph> = 0.05, <emph>p</emph> <.05) skills, better social skill outcomes (<emph>β</emph> = 0.04, <emph>p</emph> <.05), and fewer behavior problems (<emph>β</emph>=-0.08, <emph>p</emph> <.001). In addition, controlling for other demographic covariates, home-based engagement activities were associated with better social skill outcomes (<emph>β</emph> = 0.41, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and fewer behavior problems (<emph>β</emph>=-0.29, <emph>p</emph> <.001); however, there were no significant associations with reading and math skills (though all were still in the expected direction).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-33">Tests of replication</hd> <p>Because this study analyzed two independent samples of children collected years apart with varying sample sizes, it supported a test of whether the coefficient estimates from ECLS-K:2011 and HSIS were significantly different from each other using a two-sample test of independent means to see if the results from each dataset individually replicated across both. The respective <emph>p</emph>-values of the ECLS-K:2011/HSIS difference for the association between school-based engagement and reading skills, math skills, and social skills were 0.37, 0.36, and 0.35, respectively (see Table 3). Because these values are far from statistically significant, results for the regression analyses appear to be robust across the two independent samples of ECLS-K:2011 and HSIS, lending increased confidence in the findings. Indeed, this is a unique strength of this study as it allowed for a true test of replication across varying nationally representative datasets.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-34">Additional robustness checks with the ECLS-K:2011</hd> <p>Because we recognize potential socioeconomic status (SES) differences between the two samples (Head Start's mission is to serve low-income families, and the ECLS-K:2011 includes a nationally representative sample of children from various SES backgrounds), we ran additional sensitivity analyses with the ECLS-K:2011 data to assess the robustness of the results. To determine any SES and/or preschool differences in child outcomes, we reran our regression models with a construct of SES that consisted of family income, occupational prestige, and parental education, as well as a variable for if the child attended preschool. After using this more comprehensive measure of SES and including a preschool variable, results maintained, with zero to slight changes in effect size or level of significance (results available upon request).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-35">Discussion</hd> <p>This study used two large, nationally representative studies of children (ECLS-K:2011 and HSIS) to examine patterns of family engagement in schooling for Latinos on a national level, including both school- and home-based activities, enabling an overview of patterns for this large and increasing population. It further sought to replicate previous work indicating a positive connection between family engagement on child outcomes and extend this work to explore these same relations among Latino families. We found that Latino parents participated in about half of all school-based engagement activities and in additional home-based engagement activities multiple times per week. We further found that family engagement was related to Latino children's academic, cognitive, and behavioral and social development. In particular, school-based engagement was related to a variety of child outcomes in the early elementary years, as was home-based engagement to a lesser extent.</p> <p>Importantly, the findings replicated across both ECLS-K:2011 and HSIS, lending confidence to the robustness of the results and addressing a longstanding issue of generalizability in social science research (Duncan et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref147">16</reflink>]; Schmidt, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref148">59</reflink>]). Although the magnitude of these impacts was small, they can still be potentially consequential in the long run (Funder & Ozer, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref149">22</reflink>]) as family engagement in children's schooling supports their academic, cognitive, and socioemotional development (Epstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref150">19</reflink>]; Hoffman et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref151">33</reflink>]; Jeynes, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref152">34</reflink>]; Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref153">43</reflink>]; Pyle et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref154">55</reflink>]).</p> <p>Our findings are consistent with previous literature demonstrating that Latinos participate in rich, home-based activities (e.g., Auerbach, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref155">6</reflink>]; García Coll et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref156">25</reflink>]), and highlight forms of capital exemplified in Latino families (Yosso, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref157">74</reflink>]). These are exemplified through high educational aspirations for their children and also family closeness and connectivity (Auerbach, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref158">6</reflink>]; LeFevre & Shaw, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref159">41</reflink>]; Morales-Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref160">51</reflink>]), which may be related to the home-based educational activities in which they engage. Indeed, between the two samples on average, 80% of Latino parents reported engagement in number practice and 70% reported reading with their children – two key early academic subjects. Furthermore, close to 70% of Latino families in both the ECLS-K:2011 and HSIS engaged in household chores with their children. This is notable in light of research on guided participation and apprenticeship (Rogoff, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref161">57</reflink>]), where children learn and develop by initially observing and later participating in adult activities; this may be particularly salient in Latino families (Fuller & García Coll, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref162">21</reflink>]). Additionally, this practice of children working alongside their parents coupled with high educational aspirations, are consistent with Vélez-Agosto et al. ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref163">70</reflink>]) framework that emphasizes culture's place in day-to-day activities and behaviors, such as home-based engagement practices.</p> <p>Furthermore, our findings challenge the notion that Latino families tend not to participate in school-based activities, as we found high rates of participation in particular school-based activities such as parent-teacher conferences (87% in both samples) and back-to-school nights (around 80% in both samples). Other school events such as school committees or serving as a classroom volunteer may be more difficult for Latino families to participate, possibly due to barriers indicated in previous research such as non-traditional work schedules, childcare needs, transportation, and cultural and linguistic considerations (Turney & Kao, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref164">66</reflink>]), but also possibly because such committees have a limited number of slots for parents to participate. Nonetheless, this study demonstrates that Latino families <emph>do</emph> participate in certain school events in high rates; these patterns may be reflective of navigational capital found in the CCW framework (Yosso, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref165">74</reflink>]), in that this participation comes despite linguistic, cultural, and socioeconomic differences.</p> <p>Moreover, evidence from the current study suggests that home-based academic activities are not strongly (or even moderately) correlated with school-based participation – the latter which is often more visible to teachers and administrators. As such, schools and educators cannot assume that just because parents may not be involved in school-based activities that they are not engaged with their children's education. Rather, schools can acknowledge the importance of parental engagement at home and can encourage and find ways to support the types of rich and valuable home-based academic activities in which Latino families engage.</p> <p>Although school-based engagement was consistently related to children's academic and behavioral outcomes (in line with previous research), there was no consistent pattern of relationship between home-based engagement and child outcomes. These findings differ from previous studies that highlight the role of home-based engagement in children's outcomes (e.g., C. M. McWayne et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref166">48</reflink>]; Sabol et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref167">58</reflink>]). On one hand, findings that school-based engagement matters are positive and something that educators can utilize, yet on the other hand, it is puzzling that we did not find a similar story for home-based engagement, and we are unsure as to why. Although it is clear that family engagement is important, measures of engagement do not always directly connect with specific child outcomes, and future research is needed on this topic. In particular, qualitative work may be especially important to examine the relationship in home-based engagement practices and school outcomes in a more nuanced way.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-36">Implications</hd> <p>There are several implications of this study. First, schools can build on the assets of Latino families. By growing an understanding of the rich home-based activities in which Latino families engage, and the value of such, schools and teachers can partner with Latino families in supporting the development of their students. Schools can further find ways to support and encourage home-based practices and help align school- and home-based learning since they are not always closely correlated. For example, two home-based activities that parents reported frequently participating in with their children were practicing numbers and reading. Educators can potentially provide materials to help support these practices through school libraries or supplemental activity guides for parents. Further, and in line with research indicating the value of home reading in the native language – and yet the often-reported barrier of limited access to reading materials at home (Lewis et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref168">42</reflink>]; Roberts, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref169">56</reflink>]) – educators can seek to provide books in either Spanish or English to be utilized at home and encourage parents to utilize the home language when engaging in other educational activities such as counting or telling stories.</p> <p>Second, schools can increase efforts and funding to implement programs that target Latino families' engagement in schools. Whereas Latino families in the present study participated at high rates in such school activities as parent-teacher conference and back to school nights, they had much lower rates of participation in parent-school governance partnerships such as advisory councils, PTO, and other committees. This is concerning because such organizations often influence school policies and procedures, and it is critical that Latino parents have the opportunity to share their voices on school matters. Arranging meetings at alternate times, allowing for remote/virtual participation, providing childcare, and outreach to individual families are all ways that schools can encourage participation in school events.</p> <p>Lastly, ongoing research can help identify barriers to Latino family participation in school-based activities and intentionally address such factors. This can be done on a national level, as well as on a more localized level within communities and individual schools. By examining these associations within the context of structural and systemic factors and recognizing the importance of family engagement in young Latino learners' early educational experiences, schools can implement policies, programs, and practices that intentionally address such factors with an assets-based perspective. It is essential that any such reforms are informed by the specific needs of the families that schools serve, and thus schools and educators can work to deliberately and strategically get to know their families through informal activities and events, potentially partnering with other community organizations, as well as encouraging families to engage with the school in virtual capacities (e.g., social media networks).</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-37">Limitations and future directions</hd> <p>Although this study utilized two large, nationally representative datasets to examine relations between family engagement and school outcomes, the results should be interpreted with caution as the study was correlational and not causal. Nonetheless, formal analyses indicated that the findings replicated across studies, lending confidence in the results. Future studies can include longitudinal and experimental designs in order to examine the causal impact of family engagement on children's outcomes. We were also limited by our measures. School- and home-based engagement were assessed through parent response to specific questions with prescribed sets of answers. These do not allow for an in-depth examination of home practices, but rather provide a general overview, and perhaps this measurement contributed to the mixed findings for the relationship between home-based engagement practices and child outcomes. As mentioned previously, the measures in these datasets were not designed to examine aspects of our theoretical model, and thus, we use Bronfenbrenner ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref170">9</reflink>]), Yosso ([<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref171">74</reflink>]), and Vélez-Agosto et al. ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref172">70</reflink>]) frameworks as guides for how we approach our research and as potential lenses through which we can interpret findings. Future qualitative studies can use more nuanced measures of family engagement, as well as consider open-ended questions that might offer further insight into engagement practices, especially at home, and allow for an application of theoretical models (e.g., how different types of capital both support family engagement).</p> <p>The current work fills an important gap in offering a broad snapshot of national patterns around school- and home-based family engagement. Future studies can also provide a more nuanced description of family engagement patterns on a localized level. This would include how parents engage in these activities and how this might vary by community factors such as access to local programs and information; policies that may/may not encourage parent participation (e.g., questions asked on paperwork, times of activities); language services; as well as family factors such as language and welcoming/unwelcoming experiences with schools and school staff.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-38">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study used two large, nationally representative studies of children (ECLS-K:2011 and HSIS) to examine patterns of family engagement for Latinos on a national level, including both school- and home-based activities. We found that Latino parents participated in both school- and home-based engagement activities at high rates. We further found that family engagement was related to Latino children's academic, cognitive, and behavioral development, and particularly for school-based activities. As a result, schools can find ways to support and encourage Latino families' home-based practices to align school and home-based learning, while simultaneously promoting efforts to increase school-based engagement of this large and increasing population.</p> <hd id="AN0186082871-39">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0186082871-40"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref120" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Names alphabetical, equal contribution.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0186082871-41"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Achenbach, T. M., Edelbrock, C., & Howell, C. T. (1987). Empirically based assessment of the behavioral/emotional problems of 2- and 3- year-old children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15 (4), 629 – 650. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00917246</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref116" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Alba, R., Jiménez, T. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Latino Family Engagement and Student Outcomes in Early Elementary School: Evidence from Two National Datasets
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  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Christa+Mulker+Greenfader%22">Christa Mulker Greenfader</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9438-7995">0000-0001-9438-7995</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Elizabeth+B%2E+Miller%22">Elizabeth B. Miller</searchLink>
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  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Latinos+and+Education%22"><i>Journal of Latinos and Education</i></searchLink>. 2025 24(3):701-720.
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  Label: Availability
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 20
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Preschool+Education%22">Preschool Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Students%22">Elementary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Children%22">Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Longitudinal+Studies%22">Longitudinal Studies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Surveys%22">Surveys</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Early+Intervention%22">Early Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Experience%22">Experience</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Education%22">Preschool Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+%28Sociological+Unit%29%22">Family (Sociological Unit)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Latin+Americans%22">Latin Americans</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Involvement%22">Family Involvement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Environment%22">Family Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Low+Income%22">Low Income</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Relationship%22">Family Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Activities%22">School Activities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Home+Study%22">Home Study</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Early+Childhood+Longitudinal+Survey%22">Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Head+Start+Family+and+Child+Experiences+Survey%22">Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/15348431.2024.2413534
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1534-8431<br />1532-771X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Family engagement in children's schooling is important. Research indicates that Latino families often utilize home-based practices (e.g. reading, telling stories, singing, counting) over school-based involvement (e.g. participating in school events and committees, volunteering in the classroom). Using an assets-based approach, the present study considers both school- and home-based forms of engagement for Latino families. Drawing upon data from two large, nationally representative datasets, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011; N = 4,590) and the Head Start Impact Study (HSIS; N = 1,670), this study seeks to examine national patterns of Latino family school- and home-based engagement in kindergarten, and how such engagement relates to child academic, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes in early elementary school. Descriptive findings show high levels of Latino family participation in a variety of both home-based academic activities and school-based activities. Regression analyses indicate an association between Latino family engagement and child outcomes, most evident in school-based engagement. Implications for educators, schools, and research are discussed.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1506350
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1506350
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/15348431.2024.2413534
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 20
        StartPage: 701
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Kindergarten
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Longitudinal Studies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Surveys
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Intervention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Experience
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family (Sociological Unit)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Latin Americans
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family Involvement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Low Income
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: School Activities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Home Study
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Latino Family Engagement and Student Outcomes in Early Elementary School: Evidence from Two National Datasets
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Christa Mulker Greenfader
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Elizabeth B. Miller
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1534-8431
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1532-771X
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 24
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Latinos and Education
              Type: main
ResultId 1