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Using Games and Activities to Increase Inhibitory Control Skills in Kindergarten-Aged Children

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Title: Using Games and Activities to Increase Inhibitory Control Skills in Kindergarten-Aged Children
Language: English
Authors: Kailyn Lambert, Cynthia F. DiCarlo (ORCID 0000-0002-9492-169X), Denise Rueter
Source: Early Childhood Education Journal. 2026 54(2):517-525.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 9
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Elementary Education
Kindergarten
Primary Education
Descriptors: Kindergarten, Young Children, Executive Function, Inhibition, Games, Developmentally Appropriate Practices, Self Control, Intervention, Skill Development
DOI: 10.1007/s10643-024-01847-x
ISSN: 1082-3301
1573-1707
Abstract: Executive function skills are critical in early development, as they "form the foundation for children's ability to self-regulate" (McLelland, et al., 2016, p. 242). Inhibitory control, one component of executive function, is the ability to suppress or inhibit responses to distractions when completing a task. The purpose of this study was to improve children's inhibitory control in the classroom through age appropriate games, which promote controlling emotions and remaining on task. Three target children were observed in the classroom they attended with their regular teacher. Baseline data revealed that the target children needed improvement on inhibitory control skills, which included controlling emotions and staying on task. The Inhibitory Control Intervention consisted of age-appropriate games (Uno, Perfection, Matching Cards, I Spy book) that promoted staying on task and controlling emotions independently and with small groups of peers. Data were collected using momentary time sampling for a ten minute period during free choice center time. When the Inhibitory Control Intervention was in place, there was an increase in both on task behavior and controlling emotions during free-choice center time. Providing opportunities for children to practice inhibitory control skills can be beneficial for increasing children's self-regulation skills.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1507419
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0191573884;5mx01feb.26;2026Feb17.02:11;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0191573884-1">Using Games and Activities to Increase Inhibitory Control Skills in Kindergarten-aged Children </title> <p>Executive function skills are critical in early development, as they "form the foundation for children's ability to self-regulate" (McLelland, et al., 2016, p. 242). Inhibitory control, one component of executive function, is the ability to suppress or inhibit responses to distractions when completing a task. The purpose of this study was to improve children's inhibitory control in the classroom through ageappropriate games, which promote controlling emotions and remaining on task. Three target children were observed in the classroom they attended with their regular teacher. Baseline data revealed that the target children needed improvement on inhibitory control skills, which included controlling emotions and staying on task. The Inhibitory Control Intervention consisted of age-appropriate games (Uno, Perfection, Matching Cards, I Spy book) that promoted staying on task and controlling emotions independently and with small groups of peers. Data were collected using momentary time sampling for a ten minute period during free choice center time. When the Inhibitory Control Intervention was in place, there was an increase in both on task behavior and controlling emotions during free-choice center time. Providing opportunities for children to practice inhibitory control skills can be beneficial for increasing children's self-regulation skills.</p> <p>Keywords: Inhibitory control; Kindergarten; Self-regulation; Executive function</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Self-regulation, supported by executive function, is essential for young children to effectively manage their behavior, thoughts, and attention. Key components of executive function—working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control—play a critical role in early learning and development. In particular, inhibitory control, which allows children to suppress distractions and regulate impulses, is a strong predictor of academic success and emotional regulation. Targeted, play-based interventions can foster inhibitory control skills and support better learning outcomes.</p> <p>The growing prevalence of attention disorders in early childhood, often exacerbated by factors like excessive screen time, highlights the need for interventions to strengthen executive function. Research underscores the value of developmentally appropriate practices, such as structured play and peer interactions, in promoting self-regulation and cognitive growth. By creating environments that nurture autonomy, problem-solving, and attention, educators can enhance children's readiness for school and long-term academic success. This review synthesizes current literature on executive function and discusses effective strategies for supporting young learners in managing attention and inhibitory control.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-3">Literature Review</hd> <p>Self-regulation is the ability to manage behavior, thoughts, and attention, supported by executive function—cognitive processes that include working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control (Eisenberg & Zhou, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref1">12</reflink>]). Working memory helps children retain task-relevant information, cognitive flexibility allows them to shift perspectives (Griffin et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref2">16</reflink>]), and inhibitory control enables them to suppress distractions (Nguyen & Duncan, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref3">26</reflink>]). Inhibitory control is critical for early learning, with significant development occurring between ages 3 and 6 (Carlson & Moses, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref4">6</reflink>]). Early education should prioritize fostering these skills through play and structured activities, as their development supports both academic success and emotional regulation (Blair, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref5">4</reflink>]; Galinsky, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref6">14</reflink>]). The purpose of this manuscript is to explore the role of inhibitory control in early childhood education and examine the potential benefits of targeted developmentally appropriate interventions.</p> <p>The importance of inhibitory control is underscored by its role in helping children maintain attention and regulate emotions. Without these skills, children may struggle academically and socially. Inhibitory control helps children manage impulses, enabling them to focus on tasks and resist distractions (Diamond, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref7">10</reflink>]). This ability is foundational for classroom learning and is a strong predictor of future academic success and behavioral regulation (Ackerman & Friedman-Krauss, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>]). Teachers play a crucial role in creating an environment that supports the development of these skills. This manuscript will further discuss the connections between executive function, attention, and learning; emphasizing the influence of screen time and other factors on young learners' development.</p> <p>Attention is essential for learning, yet attention disorders are common among young children. In 2016, over six million children were diagnosed with attention disorders, including 388,000 in early childhood (National Center on Birth Defects & Developmental Disabilities, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref9">25</reflink>]). Factors like excessive screen time can exacerbate these issues, leading to poor executive function and behavioral challenges (Liu & Lee, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref10">22</reflink>]). Research shows that increased screen exposure is linked to difficulties in sustaining attention and problems with behavior, making it important for educators and parents to monitor and limit screen use (American Academy of Pediatrics, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref11">2</reflink>]). This manuscript will outline existing literature on executive function, highlight effective practices for fostering these skills, and conclude with a discussion of the implications for early childhood educators and the potential benefits of structured, play-based interventions.</p> <p>Research indicates that children with attention disorders often struggle with executive function skills, such as attentional control, working memory, and inhibition (Re et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref12">27</reflink>]). These deficits can hinder their ability to stay focused on tasks and affect their learning. Addressing these challenges through targeted interventions can support better outcomes for children with attention difficulties. Effective strategies often involve structured, play-based activities that promote these cognitive skills, providing children with practical opportunities to develop attentional control and inhibitory functions (Diamond et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref13">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>Children with poor executive function skills are at risk of having persistent attention and learning issues. Studies have suggested that interventions aimed at strengthening executive function skills can help children manage attention deficits and improve academic performance (Brown, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref14">5</reflink>]). For example, Kerns et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref15">19</reflink>]) created tasks designed to enhance working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control have shown positive results in improving attention in children diagnosed with ADHD (Diamond et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref16">11</reflink>]). These findings highlight the importance of incorporating executive function training into early education.</p> <p>Developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood classrooms focus on creating a learning environment that promotes optimal growth through play and social interaction (NAEYC, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref17">24</reflink>]). Play is not only enjoyable but also crucial for cognitive, social, and emotional development (Tomlinson, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref18">29</reflink>]). Through play, children build problem-solving abilities, develop language skills, and form social relationships (NAEYC, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref19">24</reflink>]). In such settings, children can engage in activities that foster autonomy and motivation, which are essential for deep learning and the practice of executive function skills (King & Howard, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>Educators can enhance learning by giving children choices in their play activities. Providing opportunities for children to make choices boosts motivation and helps develop problem-solving skills and attention (NAEYC, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref21">24</reflink>]). Social cognitive theory suggests that children learn behaviors by observing their peers (Bandura, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref22">3</reflink>]). Therefore, in a developmentally appropriate classroom, children gain valuable models of self-regulation and executive function from their interactions during play.</p> <p>Research indicates that structured play and peer interaction in the classroom can significantly improve executive function skills (Blair, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref23">4</reflink>]). These activities help children learn to control their emotions, focus their attention, and reduce impulsive behaviors. Teachers should prioritize incorporating activities that target executive function development, as these can contribute to better learning outcomes and overall school readiness (Center on the Developing Child, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref24">7</reflink>]). Studies have shown that children who develop stronger executive function skills score higher on academic assessments (McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref25">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>This study aimed to enhance inhibitory control in kindergarten-aged children through developmentally appropriate games and activities. The goal was to improve their abilities to manage emotions and maintain task-focused behavior. Observations during free-choice center time served as a measure of progress. By integrating play-based strategies, educators can provide children with opportunities to strengthen their executive function skills, fostering both academic and social-emotional development.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-4">Method</hd> <p>The proposed study was designed to increase children's inhibitory control, a necessary component of executive functioning skills. Specifically, the guiding research questions sought to determine if (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref26">1</reflink>) children's inhibitory control skills of <emph>controlling emotions</emph> would increase through the use of developmentally appropriate games and activities; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref27">2</reflink>) children's inhibitory control skills of <emph>staying on task</emph> would increase through the use of developmentally appropriate games and activities.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-5">Setting & Subjects</hd> <p>The study took place in a kindergarten classroom in a suburban community located in a southern state of the United States. There were twenty children and one teacher present in the classroom. The teacher, who held a bachelor's degree in Early Childhood Education, had one year of teaching experience and also served as the primary data collector for this study. Data were collected during free-choice center time, which took place at the end of the school day for approximately forty minutes.</p> <p>Three children were chosen to participate in this study based on their age and the results of the developmental assessment given at the start of the school year. These children had the latest birthdates in the class scored the lowest on their <emph>TS Gold</emph> Assessment, and had the most difficulty with inhibitory control. At the start of the study, Eric was 5 years, Kylie was 5 years and 1 month, and Avery was 5 years and 1 month. None of the children had Individualized Education Plans (IEP). The research study was approved by the Institutional Review Board. Both parental consent and child assent were obtained for each participant.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-6">Behavior Definitions</hd> <p>Inhibitory control has been defined as "the ability to inhibit one's own response to distractions." (Nguyen & Duncan, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref28">26</reflink>], p. 50). Behavior definitions were adapted from Teaching Strategies (TS) Gold's developmental assessment from both the Social-Emotional and Cognitive domains.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-7">Controls Emotions in an Appropriate Manner</hd> <p> <emph>TS Gold</emph> suggests that children in kindergarten should be able to "control strong emotions in an appropriate manner most of the time" (level 8, Objective 1: Regulates own emotions and behaviors, a. Manages feelings. Heroman, et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref29">17</reflink>], p. 1). This includes the ability to inhibit inappropriate responses, both verbal and physical. Inappropriate responses include yelling, using inappropriate language, taking toys from others, throwing objects, and throwing a fit. Appropriate responses include asking for a turn, waiting for a turn, asking the teacher for help, stating their feelings, and being kind to their peers.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-8">Stays on Task</hd> <p> <bold>TS Gold</bold> suggests that children in kindergarten should be able to "sustain work on age-appropriate tasks, ignore most distractions and interruptions and can return to activities after interruptions" (level 6, Objective 11 Demonstrates positive approaches to learning, a. Attends and engages. Heroman, et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref30">17</reflink>], p. 23). A child is on task if they are following directions and focused on their activity. A child is off task if they are not following directions, wandering aimlessly around the classroom, or focused on something other than their activity.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-9">Data Collection</hd> <p>Data were collected using momentary time sampling. The target child was observed for a ten-minute block of the forty minutes of free-choice center time. The ten minutes were divided into thirty-second intervals. At the end of each interval, the target behavior would be coded "only if the target behavior occurs as the interval ends" (Fiske & Delmolino, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref31">13</reflink>], p. 77). Data were summarized by calculating the percentage of the session each behavior occurred.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-10">Observation Procedures</hd> <p>The ten-minute sessions were recorded and then scored after each school day. All sessions were video recorded. The camera was placed on a shelf in the classroom to capture all three of the targeted children. The researcher played each recorded session multiple times, in order to collect data on each target child.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-11">Experimental Conditions</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191573884-12">Baseline</hd> <p>Children engaged in the regularly scheduled free choice center time in their kindergarten classroom while their teacher observed their behavior. During this study, due to COVID-19 protocols, the children selected a learning center and remained in that center for the entire forty-minute period. The teacher did not interact with the children during the data collection period. The teacher observed off to the side of the room, where she was able to monitor the children.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-13">Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</hd> <p>The <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> consisted of activities selected from recommendations from the Harvard Center on the Developing Child ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref32">8</reflink>]). Each activity promoted an inhibitory skill and was designed to be played with a peer or with a small group of peers. The teacher ensured that targeted children did not engage in games with peers who were also part of the study. The activities are presented in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1 Age-appropriate Activities Promoting Inhibitory Control</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Activity</p></th><th align="left"><p>Inhibitory skill</p></th><th align="left"><p>Players</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Slapjack © – a card game requiring players to discard their cards quickly, while watching for a jack to 'slap' and steal the pile</p></td><td align="left"><p>Fast responses</p></td><td align="left"><p>Small group of peers</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Perfection ©– match the shapes in the correct place before time runs out</p></td><td align="left"><p>Fast responses</p></td><td align="left"><p>One-on-one with a peer</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Trouble ©– a board game where players roll the dice and try to be the first to send their pieces all around the game board</p></td><td align="left"><p>Strategy, wait time</p></td><td align="left"><p>Small group of peers</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>I Spy! © Books – books with hidden items to search and find</p></td><td align="left"><p>Selective attention</p></td><td align="left"><p>Independent</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Uno © – matching cards by color or number</p></td><td align="left"><p>Strategy</p></td><td align="left"><p>One-on-one with a peer</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Matching Cards – players must flip two cards at a time to find a matching pair</p></td><td align="left"><p>Attention skills</p></td><td align="left"><p>Independent</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>The target child was allowed to choose one activity to complete during free-choice center time. The teacher explained the rules and monitored their behaviors during each activity. Once the child completed the activity, he could choose to play again or return to free-choice centers. The activities were put away after the child was finished. On average, children engaged with the games for ten minutes.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-14">Experimental Design</hd> <p>This research study was a single-case multiple baseline design. Single-case research designs focus specifically on one, or a few subjects. Single-case research also requires "continuous assessment over time and intervention effects are replicated within the same subject over time" (Kazdin, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref33">18</reflink>], p. 384–385). According to Kazdin ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref34">18</reflink>]), "These two characteristics serve to convey how the designs rule out threats to validity, demonstrate causal relations, and build a knowledge base" (p. 385).</p> <p>Multiple baseline designs require the intervention to be introduced to different participants at different points in time (Kazdin, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref35">18</reflink>]). According to Kazdin ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref36">18</reflink>]), "Multiple-baseline design demonstrates the effect of an intervention by showing that behavior changes when and only when the intervention is applied" (p. 145). The multiple-baseline design is practical in applied settings, such as a kindergarten classroom. As the lead teacher also served as the primary researcher, the use of a multiple-baseline design allowed the teacher to gradually implement the intervention on a small scale, which was manageable in a classroom (Kazdin, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref37">18</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-15">Interobserver Agreement</hd> <p>The reliability observer was an undergraduate early childhood education major, completing her service learning in the classroom. The reliability observer was trained through a review of behavior definitions, discussion examples, and non-examples of each target behavior, and the momentary time sampling data system. Both the primary researcher and reliability observer independently watched and coded the same 4 baseline and intervention sessions for each participant. By recommendations in single case research design, reliability observations occurred for 20% (n = 4) sessions across baseline and intervention for all children (Kratochwill, et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref38">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>To calculate interobserver agreement (IOA), the point-by-point agreement ratio was used. The number of agreements was divided by the number of agreements and disagreements added together. The result was then converted into a percentage (Kazdin, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref39">18</reflink>], p. 104). Overall interobserver agreement for <emph>Inhibitory Control</emph> was 83% (range, 77–100%). For the subcategories of inhibitory control, interobserver agreement <emph>controls emotion</emph> was 88% (range, 78–100%) and interobserver agreement for <emph>stays on task</emph> was 87% (range, 77–90%).</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-16">Results</hd> <p>The proposed study was designed to increase children's inhibitory control, a necessary component of executive functioning skills. Specifically, the guiding research questions sought to determine if (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref40">1</reflink>) children's inhibitory control skills of <emph>controlling emotions</emph> would increase through the use of developmentally appropriate games and activities (Fig. 1); (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>) children's inhibitory control skills of <emph>staying on task</emph> would increase through the use of developmentally appropriate games and activities (Fig. 2). After the intervention, there was an increase in all three target students' inhibitory control skills of controlling emotions and staying on task.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Percentage of observed intervals in which controlling emotions behaviors were observed</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 Percentage of observed intervals in which on task behaviors were observed</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-17">Eric</hd> <p>During baseline, Eric's <emph>inhibitory control</emph> averaged 64% (range, 15–85%); when the <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> was applied, Eric's <emph>inhibitory control</emph> averaged 82% (range, 60–100%). This represents an 18 percentage point increase (Table 2).</p> <p>Table 2 Average percentage of subcategories of Inhibitory Control across baseline and the Inhibitory Control Games Intervention for all three children</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2" /><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Controls emotion</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Stays on task</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>BL</p></th><th align="left"><p>INT</p></th><th align="left"><p>Difference</p></th><th align="left"><p>BL</p></th><th align="left"><p>INT</p></th><th align="left"><p>Difference</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Eric</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>68</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>89</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>21</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>60</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>74</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>14</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Kylie</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>88</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>94</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>67</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>82</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>15</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Avery</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>77</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>87</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>93</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>14</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>When examining the subcategories of inhibitory control, during baseline Eric's ability to <emph>control emotions</emph> averaged 68% (range, 15%-85%); when the <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> was applied, Eric's <emph>control emotions</emph> averaged 89% (range, 85–100%). This represents a 21- percentage point increase (Table 2). During baseline, Eric's ability to <emph>stay on task</emph> averaged 60% (range, 40–70%); when the <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> was applied, Eric's ability to <emph>stay on task</emph> averaged 74% (range, 60–85%). This represents a 14 percentage point increase (Table 2).</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-18">Kylie</hd> <p>During baseline, Kylie's <emph>inhibitory control</emph> averaged 78% (range, 40–100%); when the <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> was applied, Kylie's <emph>inhibitory control</emph> averaged 88% (range, 70–100%). This represents a 10 percentage point increase (Table 2).</p> <p>When examining the subcategories of inhibitory control, during baseline Kylie's ability to <emph>control emotions</emph> averaged 88% (range, 80–100%); when the <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> was applied, Kylie's <emph>control emotions</emph> averaged 94% (range, 80–100%). This represents a 6- percentage point increase (Table 2). During baseline, Kylie's ability to <emph>stay on task</emph> averaged 67% (range, 40–90%); when the <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> was applied, Kylie's ability to <emph>stay on task</emph> averaged 82% (range, 70–90%). This represents a 15 percentage point increase (Table 2).</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-19">Avery</hd> <p>During baseline, Avery's inhibitory control averaged 77% (range, 65–90%); when the <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> was applied, Avery's inhibitory control averaged 87% (range, 70–100%). This represents a 10 percentage point increase (Table 2).</p> <p>When examining the subcategories of inhibitory control, during baseline Avery's ability to <emph>control emotions</emph> averaged 79% (range, 65–90%); when the <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> was applied, Avery's <emph>control emotions</emph> averaged 93% (range, 90–100%). This represents a 14- percentage point increase (Table 2). During baseline, Avery's ability to <emph>stay on task</emph> averaged 75% (range, 65–90%); when the <emph>Inhibitory Control Games Intervention</emph> was applied, Avery's ability to <emph>stay on task</emph> averaged 80% (range, 70–90%). This represents a 5 percentage point increase (Table 2).</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-20">Discussion</hd> <p>This study was designed to explore whether a developmentally appropriate, game-based intervention could enhance inhibitory control skills, specifically focusing on <emph>emotion control</emph> and <emph>staying on task</emph>, among kindergarten-aged children. The guiding research questions sought to determine if such interventions could positively impact children's abilities to regulate emotions and maintain attention during tasks. The findings indicated that all children demonstrated improvements in both areas, aligning with prior research and providing further evidence for the effectiveness of targeted play-based approaches.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-21">Emotion Control</hd> <p>The current study's results highlighted a notable increase in the children's ability to control emotions, aligning with Zhao et al. ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref42">31</reflink>]), who demonstrated that games like <emph>Simon Says</emph> improved children's response inhibition and emotional regulation. This suggests that playful, structured activities provide an effective means of practicing and enhancing inhibitory control. The positive outcomes also resonate with the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University's ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref43">9</reflink>]) assertion that the best way to build executive function skills is through practice. Unlike Thorell et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref44">28</reflink>]), who reported that inhibition improvements in preschoolers did not transfer to other tasks, this study found that gains in emotional control were evident during free-choice center time, implying that such interventions may have broader applicability.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-22">Staying on Task</hd> <p>Improvements in task-focused behavior observed in this study align with findings from García-Redondo et al. ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref45">15</reflink>]), who reported enhanced attention through educational video game interventions. The present research further supports that game-based activities can cultivate attentional control in early childhood. The increase in staying on task among participants supports earlier literature indicating that interventions designed to strengthen executive function contribute to academic and social benefits (Griffin et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref46">16</reflink>]; McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref47">23</reflink>]). These findings reinforce the value of integrating structured, developmentally appropriate activities in classroom settings to enhance children's ability to focus.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-23">Clinical Implications</hd> <p>The implications of these findings are significant for early childhood education. The study suggests that incorporating game-based interventions into regular classroom activities can improve children's executive function skills, particularly inhibitory control. This supports research by Blair ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref48">4</reflink>]) and McClelland et al. ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref49">23</reflink>]), which emphasized that early interventions in executive function facilitate school readiness and long-term academic success. The results echo the recommendation by Traverso et al. ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref50">30</reflink>]) that early executive function intervention can bridge developmental gaps, especially for at-risk children. Additionally, these findings suggest that parents could apply similar game-based strategies at home to support their children's emotional regulation and attention.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-24">Limitations</hd> <p>Several limitations must be considered when interpreting these results. The intervention was conducted with only three children within the same classroom, raising the possibility of diffusion of treatment, where one child's behavioral improvements might have influenced others (Kazdin, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref51">18</reflink>]). Additionally, the use of a "package" intervention involving multiple games and activities complicates the ability to identify which specific component was most effective. Another potential limitation is the role of maturation. One of the target children experienced an extended baseline period, making it difficult to rule out natural developmental progression as a contributing factor to the observed changes (Kazdin, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref52">18</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-25">Future Research</hd> <p>Future research should investigate whether similar game-based interventions can enhance executive function skills across different contexts and over longer periods. Expanding beyond free-choice center time to include structured academic activities or home settings could provide deeper insights into the applicability of these interventions. Additionally, exploring whether adult participation in these games extends the longevity of engagement and reinforces the targeted skills of emotion control and task maintenance would be valuable. Further studies could also examine the effectiveness of individual components within multi-faceted interventions to identify the most impactful elements.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-26">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study contributes to the literature affirming the importance of early development of executive function skills, specifically inhibitory control, through developmentally appropriate, play-based interventions. The findings support that targeted, game-based activities within normal classroom routines can enhance young children's ability to regulate emotions and stay on task, aligning with previous research indicating that these skills are essential for academic success and overall development (Center on the Developing Child, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref53">9</reflink>]; McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref54">23</reflink>]). This research underscores the potential of such interventions to bolster school readiness and foster long-term benefits in children's cognitive and social-emotional growth.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-27">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191573884-28">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0191573884-29">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0191573884-30"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref8" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Ackerman DJ, Friedman-Krauss AH. Preschoolers' executive function: Importance, contributors, research needs and assessment options. 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  Data: Using Games and Activities to Increase Inhibitory Control Skills in Kindergarten-Aged Children
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kailyn+Lambert%22">Kailyn Lambert</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cynthia+F%2E+DiCarlo%22">Cynthia F. DiCarlo</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9492-169X">0000-0002-9492-169X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Denise+Rueter%22">Denise Rueter</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education+Journal%22"><i>Early Childhood Education Journal</i></searchLink>. 2026 54(2):517-525.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Data: 9
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink>
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  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Young+Children%22">Young Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Executive+Function%22">Executive Function</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inhibition%22">Inhibition</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Games%22">Games</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Developmentally+Appropriate+Practices%22">Developmentally Appropriate Practices</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Control%22">Self Control</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Skill+Development%22">Skill Development</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1007/s10643-024-01847-x
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  Data: 1082-3301<br />1573-1707
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  Data: Executive function skills are critical in early development, as they "form the foundation for children's ability to self-regulate" (McLelland, et al., 2016, p. 242). Inhibitory control, one component of executive function, is the ability to suppress or inhibit responses to distractions when completing a task. The purpose of this study was to improve children's inhibitory control in the classroom through age appropriate games, which promote controlling emotions and remaining on task. Three target children were observed in the classroom they attended with their regular teacher. Baseline data revealed that the target children needed improvement on inhibitory control skills, which included controlling emotions and staying on task. The Inhibitory Control Intervention consisted of age-appropriate games (Uno, Perfection, Matching Cards, I Spy book) that promoted staying on task and controlling emotions independently and with small groups of peers. Data were collected using momentary time sampling for a ten minute period during free choice center time. When the Inhibitory Control Intervention was in place, there was an increase in both on task behavior and controlling emotions during free-choice center time. Providing opportunities for children to practice inhibitory control skills can be beneficial for increasing children's self-regulation skills.
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