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Dynamics of Thinking: Exploring The Interactions of Cognitive Sub-Competencies and Their Effect on Complex Thinking in University Students

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Title: Dynamics of Thinking: Exploring The Interactions of Cognitive Sub-Competencies and Their Effect on Complex Thinking in University Students
Language: English
Authors: José Carlos Vázquez-Parra (ORCID 0000-0001-9197-7826), Linda Carolina Henao-Rodriguez, Jenny Paola Lis-Gutierrez, Adriana Medina-Vidal (ORCID 0000-0002-3414-4307)
Source: Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. 2026 18(5):1424-1441.
Availability: Emerald Publishing Limited. Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley, West Yorkshire, BD16 1WA, UK. Tel: +44-1274-777700; Fax: +44-1274-785201; e-mail: emerald@emeraldinsight.com; Web site: http://www.emerald.com/insight
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Cultural Differences, Regional Characteristics, Differences, Undergraduate Students, Thinking Skills, Cultural Influences, Environmental Influences, Higher Education, Comparative Education, Cognitive Style
Geographic Terms: Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines, Finland, Spain, Serbia
DOI: 10.1108/JARHE-03-2025-0209
ISSN: 2050-7003
1758-1184
Abstract: Purpose: This study aims to explore how systemic, scientific, critical and innovative thinking sub-competencies interact within the broader competency of complex thinking among undergraduate students from diverse international contexts. The purpose is to determine these sub-competencies' mutual influences and examine regional variations, highlighting how distinct cultural and educational environments shape complex cognitive skills. The ultimate objective is to inform higher education practices, enabling educators and institutions to design tailored, culturally relevant interventions that effectively enhance complex thinking competencies in diverse student populations across different geographic regions and educational contexts. Design/methodology/approach: This study examines interactions among four sub-competencies of complex thinking -- systemic, scientific, critical and innovative -- using data from 435 undergraduate students across ten universities in eight countries (Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Pakistan, the Philippines, Finland, Spain and Serbia). A validated instrument (eComplexity) measured student perceptions and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) with a multi-group comparative analysis assessed the strength and variability of relationships among these sub-competencies. The analysis aimed to identify differences between geographic regions to reveal contextual nuances shaping cognitive development, contributing to a deeper understanding of how complex thinking develops within diverse cultural and educational contexts. Findings: Significant regional differences were identified in interactions among sub-competencies of complex thinking. A strong correlation between systemic and scientific thinking emerged among students from Mexico and northern Spain, while a notable link between scientific and critical thinking was observed in Colombia. Moreover, Finland, Pakistan and Colombia displayed strong relationships between innovative and complex thinking. These findings demonstrate that cognitive development within complex thinking is strongly context-dependent, influenced by specific cultural and educational conditions. The study highlights the necessity of accounting for regional characteristics when developing educational programs aimed at effectively fostering complex thinking competencies in higher education contexts across diverse international settings. Research limitations/implications: The study's primary limitation is reliance on students' self-reported perceptions, potentially introducing subjective biases. Additionally, although geographically diverse, the sample's limited representation of each country could affect generalizability. Future research should incorporate broader, balanced sampling, longitudinal analyses and mixed-method approaches combining qualitative and quantitative data to validate these findings further. Research implications emphasize exploring deeper cultural, pedagogical and institutional factors influencing complex thinking. This could enable more precise educational guidelines, enhancing curriculum design, teaching practices and policy formulation, thus addressing specific contextual needs across diverse educational environments and providing robust, empirically supported strategies for higher education institutions globally. Practical implications: This research provides universities and educators with practical insights for designing culturally and regionally adapted strategies to develop complex thinking competencies. Educators can identify and leverage the cognitive interactions most relevant in their contexts, adjusting curricula and instructional methods accordingly. Institutions could implement targeted faculty development programs to reinforce region-specific competency interactions, thus enhancing educational effectiveness. Additionally, policymakers and curriculum developers can utilize these findings to create responsive educational frameworks attuned to local cognitive and cultural dynamics, better preparing students to navigate contemporary global challenges with enhanced analytical capabilities, adaptability and innovative problem-solving skills. Social implications: Enhancing complex thinking through culturally responsive educational practices equips students with critical cognitive tools necessary for addressing contemporary societal issues effectively. By recognizing regional variations in developing critical, scientific, systemic and innovative thinking competencies, educational institutions can better prepare graduates for diverse global challenges such as sustainability, technological innovation and intercultural understanding. Promoting complex thinking contributes to forming reflective, adaptable and innovative citizens capable of critically evaluating information and creatively resolving complex problems. Ultimately, this fosters inclusive, resilient and thoughtful societies, better positioned to manage and respond effectively to local, regional and global complexities and challenges. Originality/value: This study uniquely applies partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) and multi-group analyses across diverse cultural and educational contexts in Latin America, Europe and Asia, explicitly exploring the interplay among complex thinking's sub-competencies. Its comprehensive international approach addresses a gap by examining cross-national cognitive interactions rarely studied concurrently. By identifying significant regional variations, this research provides novel insights and empirical evidence emphasizing the importance of contextual factors in cognitive skill development. Its innovative methodology and extensive international sample make original contributions, guiding higher education practices toward more nuanced, culturally informed strategies to foster complex thinking competencies effectively worldwide.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1507666
Database: ERIC
FullText Text:
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  Data: Dynamics of Thinking: Exploring The Interactions of Cognitive Sub-Competencies and Their Effect on Complex Thinking in University Students
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22José+Carlos+Vázquez-Parra%22">José Carlos Vázquez-Parra</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9197-7826">0000-0001-9197-7826</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Linda+Carolina+Henao-Rodriguez%22">Linda Carolina Henao-Rodriguez</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jenny+Paola+Lis-Gutierrez%22">Jenny Paola Lis-Gutierrez</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Adriana+Medina-Vidal%22">Adriana Medina-Vidal</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3414-4307">0000-0002-3414-4307</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Applied+Research+in+Higher+Education%22"><i>Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education</i></searchLink>. 2026 18(5):1424-1441.
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  Data: Emerald Publishing Limited. Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley, West Yorkshire, BD16 1WA, UK. Tel: +44-1274-777700; Fax: +44-1274-785201; e-mail: emerald@emeraldinsight.com; Web site: http://www.emerald.com/insight
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Chile%22">Chile</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Colombia%22">Colombia</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mexico%22">Mexico</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pakistan%22">Pakistan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Philippines%22">Philippines</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Finland%22">Finland</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spain%22">Spain</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Serbia%22">Serbia</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1108/JARHE-03-2025-0209
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  Label: ISSN
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  Data: 2050-7003<br />1758-1184
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Purpose: This study aims to explore how systemic, scientific, critical and innovative thinking sub-competencies interact within the broader competency of complex thinking among undergraduate students from diverse international contexts. The purpose is to determine these sub-competencies' mutual influences and examine regional variations, highlighting how distinct cultural and educational environments shape complex cognitive skills. The ultimate objective is to inform higher education practices, enabling educators and institutions to design tailored, culturally relevant interventions that effectively enhance complex thinking competencies in diverse student populations across different geographic regions and educational contexts. Design/methodology/approach: This study examines interactions among four sub-competencies of complex thinking -- systemic, scientific, critical and innovative -- using data from 435 undergraduate students across ten universities in eight countries (Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Pakistan, the Philippines, Finland, Spain and Serbia). A validated instrument (eComplexity) measured student perceptions and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) with a multi-group comparative analysis assessed the strength and variability of relationships among these sub-competencies. The analysis aimed to identify differences between geographic regions to reveal contextual nuances shaping cognitive development, contributing to a deeper understanding of how complex thinking develops within diverse cultural and educational contexts. Findings: Significant regional differences were identified in interactions among sub-competencies of complex thinking. A strong correlation between systemic and scientific thinking emerged among students from Mexico and northern Spain, while a notable link between scientific and critical thinking was observed in Colombia. Moreover, Finland, Pakistan and Colombia displayed strong relationships between innovative and complex thinking. These findings demonstrate that cognitive development within complex thinking is strongly context-dependent, influenced by specific cultural and educational conditions. The study highlights the necessity of accounting for regional characteristics when developing educational programs aimed at effectively fostering complex thinking competencies in higher education contexts across diverse international settings. Research limitations/implications: The study's primary limitation is reliance on students' self-reported perceptions, potentially introducing subjective biases. Additionally, although geographically diverse, the sample's limited representation of each country could affect generalizability. Future research should incorporate broader, balanced sampling, longitudinal analyses and mixed-method approaches combining qualitative and quantitative data to validate these findings further. Research implications emphasize exploring deeper cultural, pedagogical and institutional factors influencing complex thinking. This could enable more precise educational guidelines, enhancing curriculum design, teaching practices and policy formulation, thus addressing specific contextual needs across diverse educational environments and providing robust, empirically supported strategies for higher education institutions globally. Practical implications: This research provides universities and educators with practical insights for designing culturally and regionally adapted strategies to develop complex thinking competencies. Educators can identify and leverage the cognitive interactions most relevant in their contexts, adjusting curricula and instructional methods accordingly. Institutions could implement targeted faculty development programs to reinforce region-specific competency interactions, thus enhancing educational effectiveness. Additionally, policymakers and curriculum developers can utilize these findings to create responsive educational frameworks attuned to local cognitive and cultural dynamics, better preparing students to navigate contemporary global challenges with enhanced analytical capabilities, adaptability and innovative problem-solving skills. Social implications: Enhancing complex thinking through culturally responsive educational practices equips students with critical cognitive tools necessary for addressing contemporary societal issues effectively. By recognizing regional variations in developing critical, scientific, systemic and innovative thinking competencies, educational institutions can better prepare graduates for diverse global challenges such as sustainability, technological innovation and intercultural understanding. Promoting complex thinking contributes to forming reflective, adaptable and innovative citizens capable of critically evaluating information and creatively resolving complex problems. Ultimately, this fosters inclusive, resilient and thoughtful societies, better positioned to manage and respond effectively to local, regional and global complexities and challenges. Originality/value: This study uniquely applies partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) and multi-group analyses across diverse cultural and educational contexts in Latin America, Europe and Asia, explicitly exploring the interplay among complex thinking's sub-competencies. Its comprehensive international approach addresses a gap by examining cross-national cognitive interactions rarely studied concurrently. By identifying significant regional variations, this research provides novel insights and empirical evidence emphasizing the importance of contextual factors in cognitive skill development. Its innovative methodology and extensive international sample make original contributions, guiding higher education practices toward more nuanced, culturally informed strategies to foster complex thinking competencies effectively worldwide.
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