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Identifying Text-Based Factors That Contribute to the Superior Reading Efficiency of Skilled Deaf Readers: An Eye-Tracking Study of Length, Frequency, and Predictability

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Title: Identifying Text-Based Factors That Contribute to the Superior Reading Efficiency of Skilled Deaf Readers: An Eye-Tracking Study of Length, Frequency, and Predictability
Language: English
Authors: Frances G. Cooley (ORCID 0000-0001-5074-177X), Karen Emmorey (ORCID 0000-0002-5647-0066), Emily Saunders (ORCID 0000-0003-3137-1552), Grace Sinclair (ORCID 0009-0002-6879-2107), Casey Stringer (ORCID 0000-0003-3566-968X), Elizabeth R. Schotter (ORCID 0000-0001-9345-1051)
Source: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 2025 51(7):1178-1189.
Availability: American Psychological Association. Journals Department, 750 First Street NE, Washington, DC 20002. Tel: 800-374-2721; Tel: 202-336-5510; Fax: 202-336-5502; e-mail: order@apa.org; Web site: http://www.apa.org
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2025
Sponsoring Agency: National Science Foundation (NSF), Division of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences (BCS)
Contract Number: 2120546
2120507
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Deafness, Reading Comprehension, Eye Movements, Reading Strategies, Speed Reading, Reading Rate, Language Processing, Attention, Word Frequency, Prediction, Adults, American Sign Language, Achievement Tests, Spelling, Intelligence Tests
Geographic Terms: California (San Diego), Texas (Austin), District of Columbia, Florida (Tampa)
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Peabody Individual Achievement Test, Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test
DOI: 10.1037/xlm0001415
ISSN: 0278-7393
1939-1285
Abstract: Skilled deaf readers are more efficient than their hearing counterparts--they read faster, skipping more words without a negative impact on comprehension. It is not clear from where deaf readers' efficiency derives, because reading is a complex cognitive process that requires readers to extract meaning from text, incorporating visual, lexical, and contextual information. To assess the contributions of these factors to deaf readers' efficiency, we tracked their eye movements as they read sentences with target words that were manipulated for "length," "frequency," and "predictability," and we assessed the effects of those variables on "skipping probability" (i.e., whether the reader skipped or fixated the target) and "gaze duration" (i.e., the amount of time spent fixating the word before leaving it) and compared these patterns to hearing readers with equivalent reading comprehension skill. Deaf readers demonstrated increased skipping rates and shorter gaze durations overall compared to hearing readers and exhibited different patterns of word length and predictability effects, but similar frequency effects. Deaf readers' eye movements reflect "visual linguistic processing expertise" as they are primarily driven by word length when targeting words for fixation, but frequency and predictability effects on word skipping indicate that they do engage in parafoveal linguistic processing. These results emphasize the qualitative differences in reading strategies between deaf and hearing readers and advance our understanding of the impact of early language and sensory experiences on reading behaviors.
Abstractor: As Provided
Notes: https://osf.io/7gxhr
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1508691
Database: ERIC
FullText Text:
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  Data: Identifying Text-Based Factors That Contribute to the Superior Reading Efficiency of Skilled Deaf Readers: An Eye-Tracking Study of Length, Frequency, and Predictability
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Frances+G%2E+Cooley%22">Frances G. Cooley</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5074-177X">0000-0001-5074-177X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Karen+Emmorey%22">Karen Emmorey</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5647-0066">0000-0002-5647-0066</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Emily+Saunders%22">Emily Saunders</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3137-1552">0000-0003-3137-1552</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Grace+Sinclair%22">Grace Sinclair</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6879-2107">0009-0002-6879-2107</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Casey+Stringer%22">Casey Stringer</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3566-968X">0000-0003-3566-968X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Elizabeth+R%2E+Schotter%22">Elizabeth R. Schotter</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9345-1051">0000-0001-9345-1051</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology%3A+Learning%2C+Memory%2C+and+Cognition%22"><i>Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition</i></searchLink>. 2025 51(7):1178-1189.
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  Data: American Psychological Association. Journals Department, 750 First Street NE, Washington, DC 20002. Tel: 800-374-2721; Tel: 202-336-5510; Fax: 202-336-5502; e-mail: order@apa.org; Web site: http://www.apa.org
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  Data: Y
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  Data: 12
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: National Science Foundation (NSF), Division of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences (BCS)
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  Data: 2120546<br />2120507
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Deafness%22">Deafness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Comprehension%22">Reading Comprehension</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Eye+Movements%22">Eye Movements</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Strategies%22">Reading Strategies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Speed+Reading%22">Speed Reading</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Rate%22">Reading Rate</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Language+Processing%22">Language Processing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attention%22">Attention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Word+Frequency%22">Word Frequency</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Prediction%22">Prediction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adults%22">Adults</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22American+Sign+Language%22">American Sign Language</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Achievement+Tests%22">Achievement Tests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spelling%22">Spelling</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intelligence+Tests%22">Intelligence Tests</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22California+%28San+Diego%29%22">California (San Diego)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Texas+%28Austin%29%22">Texas (Austin)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22District+of+Columbia%22">District of Columbia</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Florida+%28Tampa%29%22">Florida (Tampa)</searchLink>
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  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Peabody+Individual+Achievement+Test%22">Peabody Individual Achievement Test</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Kaufman+Brief+Intelligence+Test%22">Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
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  Data: 10.1037/xlm0001415
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
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  Data: 0278-7393<br />1939-1285
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Skilled deaf readers are more efficient than their hearing counterparts--they read faster, skipping more words without a negative impact on comprehension. It is not clear from where deaf readers' efficiency derives, because reading is a complex cognitive process that requires readers to extract meaning from text, incorporating visual, lexical, and contextual information. To assess the contributions of these factors to deaf readers' efficiency, we tracked their eye movements as they read sentences with target words that were manipulated for "length," "frequency," and "predictability," and we assessed the effects of those variables on "skipping probability" (i.e., whether the reader skipped or fixated the target) and "gaze duration" (i.e., the amount of time spent fixating the word before leaving it) and compared these patterns to hearing readers with equivalent reading comprehension skill. Deaf readers demonstrated increased skipping rates and shorter gaze durations overall compared to hearing readers and exhibited different patterns of word length and predictability effects, but similar frequency effects. Deaf readers' eye movements reflect "visual linguistic processing expertise" as they are primarily driven by word length when targeting words for fixation, but frequency and predictability effects on word skipping indicate that they do engage in parafoveal linguistic processing. These results emphasize the qualitative differences in reading strategies between deaf and hearing readers and advance our understanding of the impact of early language and sensory experiences on reading behaviors.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
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  Data: As Provided
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  Data: https://osf.io/7gxhr
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  Label: Entry Date
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  Data: 2026
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1508691
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1508691
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    Identifiers:
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        Value: 10.1037/xlm0001415
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 1178
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Deafness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Comprehension
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Eye Movements
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      – SubjectFull: Reading Strategies
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      – SubjectFull: Speed Reading
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      – SubjectFull: Reading Rate
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      – SubjectFull: Language Processing
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      – SubjectFull: Word Frequency
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      – SubjectFull: Prediction
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      – SubjectFull: Adults
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      – SubjectFull: American Sign Language
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      – SubjectFull: Achievement Tests
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      – SubjectFull: Spelling
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      – SubjectFull: Intelligence Tests
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      – SubjectFull: California (San Diego)
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      – SubjectFull: Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test
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