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Construction and Validation of a Chinese Value of Learning Scale (CVLS)

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Title: Construction and Validation of a Chinese Value of Learning Scale (CVLS)
Language: English
Authors: Leung, Angela, Chi, Iris, Chow, Nelson, Chan, Kin Sun, Chou, Kee Lee
Source: Educational Gerontology. Nov-Dec 2006 32(10):907-920.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/default.html
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2006
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Measures (Individuals), Psychometrics, Learning Experience, Test Validity, Test Reliability
Geographic Terms: Hong Kong
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: NEO Personality Inventory
ISSN: 0360-1277
Abstract: The Chinese Value of Learning Scale (CVLS) is a 5-item instrument for assessing the value of learning in Chinese culture. The psychometric properties of CVLS were investigated in a convenient sample of 583 Chinese soon-to-be-aged adults in Hong Kong. CVLS possesses high internal consistency and exhibited satisfactory short-term test-retest reliability. CVLS also exhibited high face validity and mild convergent validity with other 48-item openness-to-experience scale (OTES) from Revised NEO Personality Inventory, and is significantly related to the past and actual learning experience. In view of its brevity and easy administration, CVLS offers a useful instrument to further investigate the value of learning in Chinese culture and its possible relationship with adults' learning behaviour. (Contains 1 figure and 4 tables.)
Abstractor: Author
Number of References: 28
Entry Date: 2007
Access URL: https://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/link.asp?id=J6R82U16K415X637
Accession Number: EJ756171
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0022391218;egr01nov.06;2019Feb27.14:04;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0022391218-1">Construction and Validation of a Chinese Value of Learning Scale (CVLS). </title> <sbt id="AN0022391218-2">INTRODUCTION</sbt> <p>The Chinese Value of Learning Scale (CVLS) is a 5-item instrument for assessing the value of learning in Chinese culture. The psychometric properties of CVLS were investigated in a convenient sample of 583 Chinese soon-to-be-aged adults in Hong Kong. CVLS possesses high internal consistency and exhibited satisfactory short-term test-retest reliability. CVLS also exhibited high face validity and mild convergent validity with other 48-item openness-to-experience scale (OTES) from Revised NEO Personality Inventory, and is significantly related to the past and actual learning experience. In view of its brevity and easy administration, CVLS offers a useful instrument to further investigate the value of learning in Chinese culture and its possible relationship with adults' learning behaviour.</p> <p>The notion of lifelong learning is now being generally accepted as we recognize the need to keep abreast of changes in society. Nonetheless, cultural attitudes towards learning may make a difference to a person's perceptions of the importance of learning and to their learning behavior. This was demonstrated in Li's ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref1">19</reflink>]) study, which showed that American and Chinese college students have significantly different beliefs about the meaning of learning. The impact of culture on learning has been examined by many researchers (Biggs & Watkins, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>]; Bond & Cheung, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>]; Hofstede, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref4">11</reflink>]; Lee, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref5">15</reflink>]; Markus & Kitayama, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref6">22</reflink>]). In the context of Chinese culture, efforts have been directed in recent years towards understanding the relationship between Confucian teaching, a dominant social thought in Chinese culture, and children's academic performance (Li, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref7">19</reflink>]; Salili, Chiu, & Lai, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref8">24</reflink>]; Zhang & Watkins, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref9">28</reflink>]). However, very little is known about the influence of Chinese culture on adults' learning behavior and their perceptions of learning. This is surprising as the phenomenon of learning in later life has been present in Hong Kong Chinese society for at least two decades (Lee & Chan, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref10">14</reflink>]). Additionally, it is likely to persist and be extended over the next decades as the population ages (Chou, Chi, & Leung, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref11">5</reflink>]).</p> <p>The lack of research in this area may be related to the absence of a valid and reliable scale for measuring the value given to learning by Chinese people. A comprehensive literature review has been undertaken which supports this hypothesis. Only one relevant scale, that developed by J. Li and X. D. Yue, was found, and the items were formulated by reviewing Chinese adolescents' views on learning (Li & Yue, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref12">21</reflink>]). It is doubtful whether adults would have similar views. Therefore, a focus group was conducted to collect the views from 17 Hong Kong Chinese adults. It was concluded that their positive learning attitude is mostly related to both Confucius' teaching and their own personality, particularly their open-mindedness. It seemed that these aspects were not well covered in Li & Yue's scale.</p> <p>In light of doubts about the applicability of the existing scale to an adult population and the possible impact of the culturally-oriented value in learning, a study was developed to construct and validate a Chinese value of learning scale (CVLS). This paper reports the test-retest reliability, internal consistency, factor analysis, and convergent validity of this CVLS scale. In the process of validation of the CVLS, the openness-to-experience scale (OTES) from the Big Five model has been used for testing its convergent validity. In addition, the usefulness of CVLS was assessed by comparing the scores in CVLS between active learners and nonactive learners. Prior to the detail description of the construction of the CVLS, the characteristics of OTES will be presented.</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-3">OPENNESS-TO-EXPERIENCE SCALE</hd> <p>The openness-to-experience scale was one of the domains of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), which was developed for measuring personality by Costa and McCrae (Costa & McCrae, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref13">6</reflink>]). OTES consists of 48 items using a 5-point Likert scale with 1 being "strongly disagree" and 5 being "strongly agree." Openness-to-experience refers to the willingness of a person to open up oneself to new challenges (Costa & McCrae, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref14">6</reflink>]) and foresee the future (Furnham & Heaven, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref15">9</reflink>]). This dimension of personality is essential to develop learning aspiration in later life because participation in intellectual and/or social challenging activities at this stage of life demands curiosity, creativity, and a positive attitude towards the future. There are six facets (fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, and values) in the openness-to-experience domain (Costa & McCrae, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref16">6</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-4">METHOD</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0022391218-5">Participants</hd> <p>A total of 583 Hong Kong Chinese adults, aged 45–64, cognitively intact, and able to read Chinese characters, participated in the main study. This cohort was chosen because these people will be the key stakeholders in later-life learning in the next 20 years. It has been estimated that 532,000 people are likely to engage in later-life learning in Hong Kong in 2021 (Chou et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref17">5</reflink>]). A convenience sample of 583 Chinese adults was recruited from professional bodies, religious groups, and nongovernment organizations with the aim of covering different social classes in Hong Kong society. This sampling method is based on Atchley's ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref18">1</reflink>]) analysis of patterns in membership in various types of organizations in the United States in which 85–92% of men and 62–78% of women aged 45–64 are members of the above organizations. Ethical approval was obtained from the institutional review board of the University of Hong Kong/Hospital Authority Hong Kong West Cluster prior to the commencement of data collection. Consent was obtained from the respondents.</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-6">Procedure</hd> <p>The construction and validation of the CVLS draws on the procedures suggested by Streiner and Norman ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref19">26</reflink>]). The construction of the scale involved two steps: literature review and individual interview. The tests on reliability and validity involved several steps such as testing the time needed, ease of understanding, test-retest reliability, internal consistency, factor analysis, and convergent validity (Figure 1).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1 Flow chart for the construction and validation of the Chinese Value of Learning Scale (CVLS).</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-7">Scale Construction</hd> <p>A review of theories and empirical studies on "learning," "Chinese culture," and "Chinese adults" was undertaken to identify the key dimensions or related concepts in education, educational gerontology, and learning in the Chinese context. It is well known that Confucian teaching has a significant impact on Chinese people's behavior, lives, and even perceptions about teaching and learning. Confucius is called "a teacher for ten thousand generations" by Chinese people (Li, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref20">18</reflink>]). His teachings, though they were developed thousands years ago, still reflect Chinese cultural beliefs and values. These teachings have never been forgotten by the Chinese, even today (Li, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref21">17</reflink>]).</p> <p>Confucius' aphorisms, of which most were recorded in Lun yü, commonly known in English as the Analects of Confucius, emphasized the importance of moral achievement and intellectual development. According to Confucius, learning is the way leading to self-perfection. This is called "ren" (Li, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref22">18</reflink>][<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref23">20</reflink>]; Li & Yue, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref24">21</reflink>]). A person should keep on learning throughout his life "no matter how old one is and how well one can perform logical syllogisms or articulate ideas, one is always in need of and capable of perfecting oneself further" (Li, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref25">18</reflink>]). Lau ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref26">13</reflink>] [Original work published in 1979], p.xliii) presented another illustration:</p> <p>In the Confucian context the most important point to remember is 'hsüeh' (that is, learning). It enables a man to become a better man morally. Thus morals, in the Confucian view, are akin to a skill. They can be transmitted from teacher to pupil. It is because of this possibility that Confucius placed so much emphasis on hsüeh (p. 146).</p> <p>Thus, hsüeh is the essential skill that everyone should gain throughout life. Confucius always encouraged students to be open-minded, emphasizing that learning should have no end and we should always be ready to learn from each other. "When you are walking with three people, there must be a teacher among you" is one of the Confucius' aphorisms which highlighted the importance of openness.</p> <p>This Chinese value of learning scale is based on Hofstede's ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref27">11</reflink>]) framework of culture, which suggests that particular groups of people will share collective beliefs and values. Undoubtedly, Chinese are sharing the collective value of learning through their recognition of Confucius' aphorisms: "There is no boundary to learning" and "Keep on learning as long as you live." These two Confucius' aphorisms are often cited by the Chinese. Further evidence of their recognition can be found in the writings by the Chinese who stay in the United States (Li, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref28">19</reflink>]), Taiwan (Tsoi, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref29">27</reflink>]) and Hong Kong (Leung & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref30">16</reflink>]). Such findings from the literature and present practices in contemporary Chinese society support the use of Confucius' aphorisms as the items of the CVLS.</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-8">Individual Interviews</hd> <p>Five 45–64-year-old Chinese adults, who were selected within the researcher's social network, were invited to identify the Chinese cultural statements related to learning. Efforts were made to seek people with different genders and educational attainment. The participants were asked, "What statements or proverbs do you think of when we talk about learning?" A list of possible Chinese cultural statements was cited by the participants.</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-9">Reliability and Validity</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0022391218-10">Review by Experts</hd> <p>The first draft of the CVLS contained a total of eight statements related to learning in Chinese culture. It was then subjected to expert review in order to establish its face validity. A panel of three multidisciplinary professionals (gerontologist, educator, and Chinese cultural specialist) was invited to take part in the review. During the review process, the experts were asked to rate the relevance of each item on a 5-point Likert scale from "very appropriate" to "very inappropriate." Their responses helped the researcher to decide which items should be adopted in the CVLS. Items rated as very appropriate by more than half the experts, or appropriate by all the experts, were included in the CVLS. Eventually, only five items were left in the CVLS; and this version was tested in the pilot study. All items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" (scored as 1) to "strongly agree" (scored as 5). This scale was also agreed upon by the panel.</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-11">Pilot Study</hd> <p>The aims of the pilot study were to test the ease of understanding of the items of the CVLS, check the time needed to complete the scale, and determine the test-retest reliability. A total of 22 Chinese soon-to-be-aged adults who attended a 2-day camp were invited to participate in establishing the test-retest reliability of CVLS. The two tests were carried out on the briefing date (one week prior to the implementation of the camp) and during the camp. Of these, 13 participants were willing to participate in the study and completed the two sets of questionnaires.</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-12">Main Study</hd> <p>The data from the main study were used to establish the psychometric properties of the CVLS. Four steps were carried out in the validation procedure as suggested by Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref31">10</reflink>]): tidying the scores, computing Cronbach's alpha (assessing reliability), computing factor analysis, and establishing validity.</p> <p>The researchers went through the whole dataset, looking for any abnormalities, as suggested by Chong and Chi ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref32">4</reflink>]). First, the researcher identified any missing data or system-missing data, then checked for possible coding errors (for example, female living with wife) and the not applicable (NA) answers. Last, the researchers recoded the scores of the statements if they were in opposite directions.</p> <p>To establish the internal consistency of the entire scale, Cronbach's alpha was computed. The alpha-if-item-deleted (AIID) and corrected item-total correlation (CITC) were also checked to determine which item of the scale should be considered for deletion in order to improve the overall alpha of the scale. If the AIID of an item was greater than Cronbach's alpha and its CITC was lower than 0.30, this item was considered for deletion (Cronbach, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref33">7</reflink>]; Nunnally & Bernstein, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref34">23</reflink>]; Streiner & Norman, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref35">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>A principal component analysis (or factor analysis) was used to summarize the items in a minimum number of factors to help identify whether there was any subscale in the CVLS. If the factor loading of an item was smaller than 0.30, this item was considered for deletion.</p> <p>The convergent validity of the CVLS was assessed by its association with OTES, as well as the respondents' past and actual learning behavior. First, the respondents completed the 48-item OTES. Then, they indicated their past learning experience by replying to this question: "In the past six months, have you participated in the following types of learning activities?" Four options were given: formal learning (FL) (for example, courses organized by recognized colleges or universities), nonformal learning (NFL) (for example, courses organized by community centers), informal learning (IFL) (for example, reading newspapers), and none of the above. Finally the respondents were asked for their current engagement in health-related learning (HRL). Pearsons' correlation was used to test the correlation between OTES and CVLS. Independent sample <emph>t</emph> tests were used to compare differences of the mean score in CVLS between the active learners and nonactive learners in FL, NFL, INF, and HRL.</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-13">RESULTS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0022391218-14">Descriptive Statistics</hd> <p>Table 1 summarizes the demographic data of the respondents. The respondents took an average of 3 minutes to complete the 5-item CVLS, which was relatively faster than their completion of OTES (about 20 minutes). They did not demonstrate any difficulty in understanding and responding to the CVLS. As a result, the pilot study did not lead to any changes in the CVLS.</p> <p>Table 1. Demographic data of respondents in the main study (N = 583)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Frequency</td><td>Percentage</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Age</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> 45–49</td><td>148</td><td char="." charoff="50">25.39</td></tr><tr><td> 50–54</td><td>176</td><td char="." charoff="50">30.19</td></tr><tr><td> 55–59</td><td>158</td><td char="." charoff="50">27.10</td></tr><tr><td> 60–64</td><td>101</td><td char="." charoff="50">17.32</td></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Male</td><td>160</td><td char="." charoff="50">27.44</td></tr><tr><td> Female</td><td>423</td><td char="." charoff="50">72.56</td></tr><tr><td>Educational attainment</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Primary or no education</td><td>88</td><td char="." charoff="50">15.09</td></tr><tr><td> Lower secondary (grade 7–9)</td><td>83</td><td char="." charoff="50">14.24</td></tr><tr><td> Upper secondary (grade 10–12)</td><td>222</td><td char="." charoff="50">38.08</td></tr><tr><td> Tertiary or above</td><td>188</td><td char="." charoff="50">32.25</td></tr><tr><td> Missing</td><td>2</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.34</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0022391218-15">Reliability</hd> <p>Table 2 shows the psychometric properties of the CVLS. The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach's alpha) of the CVLS was 0.94 in the current sample. No item was removed from the whole CVLS, as none of the AIIDs of the five items was greater than 0.94 and all the CITCs were greater than 0.30. The positive values in all the CITCs implied that all five items were in the same direction and no recoding or modification was needed. Test-retest reliabilities were obtained for the CVLS (ICC = 0.51, 95% C.I. − 0.03 to 0.82, <emph>p</emph> = 0.03) over a short period of time, that is, one week. Results have shown that the internal consistency was good and short-term test-retest reliabilities of the CVLS were fair.</p> <p>Table 2 Psychometric properties of the Chinese value of learning scale (CVLS)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Item no.</td><td>Item</td><td>Alpha if item deleted (AIID)</td><td>Corrected Item-total correlation (CITC)</td><td>Factor loading</td><td>% of variance explained</td><td>Cronbach's alpha</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td /><td>Chinese value of learning scale (CVLS)</td><td /><td /><td /><td char="." charoff="50">79.80</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.94</td></tr><tr><td /><td><italic>Principal Component (PC 1)</italic></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>El</td><td>Keep on learning as long as you live.</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.92</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.84</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.91</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>E2</td><td>There is no boundary to learning.</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.92</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.87</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.92</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>E3</td><td>Keeping fresh in his mind what he is already familiar with.</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.92</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.83</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.90</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>E4</td><td>A jade will not shine without polishing; a person will fall backwards without learning.</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.92</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.82</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.89</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>E5</td><td>Knowledge is like a sea without boundary; you should learn harder and you will reach the shore.</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.93</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.78</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.86</td><td /><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0022391218-16">Validity</hd> <p>The factor loadings of the five items in the CVLS ranged from 0.86 to 0.92 and, therefore, no item was deleted (Table 2). All five items of the CVLS contributed to one principal component, and that component accounted for 79.80% of the total variance.</p> <p>The CVLS showed significant mild correlation with OTES (Pearsons' <emph>r</emph> = 0.25, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and four of its facets, namely aesthetics (Pearsons' <emph>r</emph> = 0.23, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001), feelings (Pearsons' <emph>r</emph> = 0.24, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001), ideas (Pearsons' <emph>r</emph> = 0.21, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and values (Pearsons' <emph>r</emph> = 0.16, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) (Table 3).</p> <p>Table 3. Correlations between Chinese value of learning scale (CVLS) and openness-to-experience scale (OTES)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Pearson's correlations</td><td>CYLS</td><td><italic>p</italic>-value</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>OTES</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.25</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001**</td></tr><tr><td>Ol: Fantasy</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.02</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.638</td></tr><tr><td>O2: Aesthetics</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.23</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001**</td></tr><tr><td>O3: Feelings</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.24</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001**</td></tr><tr><td>O4: Actions</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.06</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.149</td></tr><tr><td>O5: Ideas</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.21</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001**</td></tr><tr><td>O6: Values</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.16</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001**</td></tr><tr><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>On the other hand, it was found that the scores in CVLS were significantly different between the active learners and nonactive learners in health-related learning (mean difference = 1.43, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.34, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) (Table 4). For those who actively participated in formal learning in the past six months, their score in CVLS was statistically significantly higher than those who did not participate (mean difference = 0.73, <emph>SE</emph> difference = 0.29, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). A similar pattern was also found in the learners who engaged in informal learning. For those who were active in informal learning in the past six months, their score in CVLS was significantly higher than the nonactive learners (mean difference = 0.93, <emph>SE</emph> difference = 0.26, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). The mean score difference of CVLS between the two groups of learners in nonformal learning was marginally insignificant (<emph>p</emph> = 0.069).</p> <p>Table 4. Comparing differences in Chinese value of learning between the active learners and nonactive learners in health-related learning, formal learning, nonformal learning, and informal learning experience</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Active learners</td><td>Nonactive learners</td><td>Active learners—nonactive learners</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td><italic>n</italic></td><td>Mean</td><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td><italic>n</italic></td><td>Mean</td><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td><italic>n</italic></td><td>Mean diff.</td><td><italic>SE</italic> diff.</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>t</italic></td><td><italic>df</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>HRL</td><td>440</td><td char="." charoff="50">22.52</td><td char="." charoff="50">2.76</td><td>142</td><td char="." charoff="50">21.09</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.70</td><td>298</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.43</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.34</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001</td><td char="." charoff="50">4.237</td><td>194</td></tr><tr><td>FL</td><td>128</td><td char="." charoff="50">22.74</td><td char="." charoff="50">2.85</td><td>454</td><td char="." charoff="50">22.01</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.12</td><td>−326</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.73</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.29</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.013</td><td char="." charoff="50">2.508</td><td>220</td></tr><tr><td>NFL</td><td>288</td><td char="." charoff="50">22.41</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.08</td><td>294</td><td char="." charoff="50">21.94</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.06</td><td>−6</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.46</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.25</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.069</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.823</td><td>580</td></tr><tr><td>IFL</td><td>316</td><td char="." charoff="50">22.60</td><td char="." charoff="50">2.77</td><td>266</td><td char="." charoff="50">21.67</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.34</td><td>50</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.93</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.26</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.624</td><td>515</td></tr><tr><td /></tr><tr><td /></tr><tr><td /></tr><tr><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0022391218-17">DISCUSSION</hd> <p>The findings of this study provide support for the reliability and validity of the five-item CVLS, which was based on Confucius' aphorisms. The panel of experts agreed on the high face validity of this scale and found that it reflected the value of learning in the Chinese context. The brevity of the CVLS was appreciated by the respondents.</p> <p>The factor and item analyses identified this five-item scale as unidimensional, which accounted for a large amount of variance. The internal consistency coefficient and test-retest reliability coefficient support the good reliability and fair stability of this scale. Its mild correlation with the 48-item OTES provides support that it is an acceptable measure for assessing adults' attitude towards learning, at least in its openness dimension of personality towards learning. Learning in later life is different from academic learning during youth; it does not aim for academic achievement. The majority of adult learners were attracted to arts and crafts courses and participation in the performing arts when they were approaching later life (Atchley, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref36">1</reflink>]; Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui Welfare Council—Institute of Continuing Education for Senior Citizens, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref37">12</reflink>]). Thus, creativity and openness become essential and, eventually, lead to learning, and successful aging (Fisher & Specht, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref38">8</reflink>]; Schaie & Willis, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref39">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>It was also demonstrated that the scores in CVLS are related to the past and actual learning experience. The mean scores in CVLS between the active learners and the nonactive learners in health-related learning, formal learning, and informal learning were significantly different. This reflected that CVLS can actually measure and reflect learning behaviour among Chinese adults.</p> <p>Confucius espoused a lifelong learning approach and said, "Grant me a few more years so that I may continue to learn at the age of 50 and I shall, perhaps, be free from major errors" (Lau, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref40">13</reflink>]). Obviously, in Chinese culture, learning is a crucial activity for every citizen, and there is little doubt that learning should be continued in later life. Confucius's aphorisms were usually short statements and are well recognized by Chinese people. This is evidenced by Li's ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref41">20</reflink>]) study, in which American Chinese college students had no difficulty citing some of Confucius' aphorisms. In addition, although some of the respondents in the current study were of lower educational level, they had no difficulty understanding the items in the CVLS (which are Confucius' aphorisms). That is because these statements reflect the cultural perspective on learning in the Chinese context and can be heard frequently in Chinese societies.</p> <p>Although evidence demonstrates that the CVLS is an adequate research instrument, the current study has two limitations. First, the samples used in the current study were from one Chinese city only. It is important, therefore, to investigate the psychometric properties of this scale in other Chinese societies, such as in cities in mainland China or Taiwan. Second, it is important to note that the CVLS has been validated in a sample of Chinese soon-to-be-aged adults, and its utility for the general Chinese population, including adolescents or older adults, should be examined in future studies.</p> <p>In conclusion, the results of the present study indicate that the CVLS displays adequate psychometric properties in terms of internal consistency, test-retest reliability, face validity, and convergent validity—at least for Chinese soon-to-be-aged adults. This scale, in view of its brevity and easy administration, offers a useful instrument for further investigation of the value of learning in Chinese culture.</p> <hd id="AN0022391218-18">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>University Research Grant, University of Hong Kong.</p> <p>The authors thank two anonymous reviewers for their comments on the earlier drafts of this article.</p> <p>Support for this research was provided by the Seed Fund for Basic Research, Department of Nursing Studies, Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong.</p> <ref id="AN0022391218-19"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref18" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Atchley, R. C. (1997). Social forces and aging: An introduction to social gerontology (, 8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Biggs, J. W. & Watkins, D. A. (1996). The Chinese learner in retrospect. In J.Biggs & D. 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Cognitive development and student approaches to learning: An investigation of Perry's theory with Chinese and U.S. university students.Higher Education, 41, 239–261.[CSA][CROSSREF]</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0022391218-20"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> **<emph>p</emph> < 0.001.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> HRL: Engaging in health-related learning.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> FL: Participated in formal learning in the past 6 months.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> NFL: Participated in nonformal learning in tbe past 6 months.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> IFL: Participated in informal learning in the past 6 months</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Angela Leung; Iris Chi; Nelson Chow; Kin Sun Chan and Kee Lee Chou</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref39"></nolink>
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  Data: The Chinese Value of Learning Scale (CVLS) is a 5-item instrument for assessing the value of learning in Chinese culture. The psychometric properties of CVLS were investigated in a convenient sample of 583 Chinese soon-to-be-aged adults in Hong Kong. CVLS possesses high internal consistency and exhibited satisfactory short-term test-retest reliability. CVLS also exhibited high face validity and mild convergent validity with other 48-item openness-to-experience scale (OTES) from Revised NEO Personality Inventory, and is significantly related to the past and actual learning experience. In view of its brevity and easy administration, CVLS offers a useful instrument to further investigate the value of learning in Chinese culture and its possible relationship with adults' learning behaviour. (Contains 1 figure and 4 tables.)
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