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Effects of a Physical Education Intervention to Improve Student Activity Levels

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Title: Effects of a Physical Education Intervention to Improve Student Activity Levels
Language: English
Authors: Fairclough, Stuart J., Stratton, Gareth
Source: Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. Feb 2006 11(1):29-44.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2006
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Grade 7
Descriptors: Physical Education, Physical Activities, Physical Activity Level, Foreign Countries, Intervention, Health Promotion, Females, Preadolescents, Grade 7, Comparative Analysis, Program Effectiveness, Observation, Student Participation, Teacher Behavior, Health Behavior
Geographic Terms: United Kingdom (England)
DOI: 10.1080/17408980500467613
ISSN: 1740-8989
Abstract: Background: School physical education is available to most young people and provides a structured context for physical activity participation. Regular physical activity during childhood can confer acute and long-term health benefits. From this health perspective one of the goals of physical education is for students to take part in appropriate amounts of physical activity during lesson time. However, the diverse aims of physical education (e.g., motor, cognitive, social development, etc.) may hinder achievement of this goal as they can contrast with participation in health-enhancing physical activity. Despite these constraints improving physical activity opportunities during lessons is a worthwhile aspiration and has been a research focus for some time. Purpose: To increase cardio respiratory health-enhancing physical activity levels during girls' gymnastics lessons by manipulating the lesson contexts and teacher behaviours, and to achieve this without compromising other planned lesson objectives. Participants and setting: Two classes of 30-32 Year 7 girls (aged 11-12 years) from one co-educational high school in Merseyside, England participated in the study. Classes were randomly appointed to control (CON) and intervention (INT) conditions. Intervention: The key principle of the pedagogical intervention was that the INT teacher including enhanced physical activity levels as an additional planned lesson objective, "alongside" existing objectives from a gymnastics unit of work. The INT teacher used these slightly modified lesson objectives to underpin the lesson planning and delivery. Research design: The research incorporated a quasi-experimental design whereby both the CON and INT classes were taught gymnastics lessons based on the same unit of work over a six-week period. Following an initial baseline lesson, the CON class participated in lessons planned and taught in the regular way, while the INT class took part in lessons that employed the intervention principles integrated into the planning and delivery. Data collection: Student activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours were quantified over a six-lesson gymnastics unit using a validated direct observation instrument (SOFIT). After each lesson the CON and INT teachers completed evaluations indicating whether lesson objectives were met. Data analysis: The dependent variables reflected lesson length, student activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours. Student activity levels included proportions of the time spent at various activity levels and three summary measures of activity, which were, (a) the proportion of lesson time engaged in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), (b) estimated mean energy expenditure rate per child (EER), and (c) estimated total energy expenditure per child per lesson (TEE). Data were analysed between classes using independent t-tests. Findings: Both classes engaged in relatively low levels of MVPA, although the INT students took part in significantly more than the CON students (18.5% vs. 13.5% of lesson time, p less than 0.05). EER was 8% greater among the INT class compared to the CON class (p = 0.07). TEE was similar between classes, even though CON lessons were 6.4 min longer. Furthermore, INT students had most opportunities for skill practice (43.1% vs. 34.7% of lesson time, p less than 0.05). Both teachers indicated that their planned lesson objectives were achieved. Conclusions: Modest improvements in MVPA can be realised in gymnastics, whose goals and characteristics seemingly contrast with engagement in cardio-respiratory health-enhancing physical activity. Integrating increased MVPA as a lesson objective can optimise students' active participation in lessons. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 52
Entry Date: 2008
Accession Number: EJ818166
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0019851249;z3x01feb.06;2019Mar20.12:21;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0019851249-1">Effects of a physical education intervention to improve student activity levels. </title> <p>Background: School physical education is available to most young people and provides a structured context for physical activity participation. Regular physical activity during childhood can confer acute and long-term health benefits. From this health perspective one of the goals of physical education is for students to take part in appropriate amounts of physical activity during lesson time. However, the diverse aims of physical education (e.g., motor, cognitive, social development, etc.) may hinder achievement of this goal as they can contrast with participation in health-enhancing physical activity. Despite these constraints improving physical activity opportunities during lessons is a worthwhile aspiration and has been a research focus for some time. Purpose: To increase cardio respiratory health-enhancing physical activity levels during girls' gymnastics lessons by manipulating the lesson contexts and teacher behaviours, and to achieve this without compromising other planned lesson objectives Participants and setting: Two classes of 30–32 Year 7 girls (aged 11–12 years) from one co-educational high school in Merseyside, England participated in the study. Classes were randomly appointed to control (CON) and intervention (INT) conditions. Intervention: The key principle of the pedagogical intervention was that the INT teacher including enhanced physical activity levels as an additional planned lesson objective, alongside existing objectives from a gymnastics unit of work. The INT teacher used these slightly modified lesson objectives to underpin the lesson planning and delivery. Research design: The research incorporated a quasi-experimental design whereby both the CON and INT classes were taught gymnastics lessons based on the same unit of work over a six-week period. Following an initial baseline lesson, the CON class participated in lessons planned and taught in the regular way, while the INT class took part in lessons that employed the intervention principles integrated into the planning and delivery. Data collection: Student activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours were quantified over a six-lesson gymnastics unit using a validated direct observation instrument (SOFIT). After each lesson the CON and INT teachers completed evaluations indicating whether lesson objectives were met. Data analysis: The dependent variables reflected lesson length, student activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours. Student activity levels included proportions of the time spent at various activity levels and three summary measures of activity, which were, (a) the proportion of lesson time engaged in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), (b) estimated mean energy expenditure rate per child (EER), and (c) estimated total energy expenditure per child per lesson (TEE). Data were analysed between classes using independent t-tests. Findings: Both classes engaged in relatively low levels of MVPA, although the INT students took part in significantly more than the CON students (18.5% vs. 13.5% of lesson time, p <.05). EER was 8% greater among the INT class compared to the CON class (p =.07). TEE was similar between classes, even though CON lessons were 6.4 min longer. Furthermore, INT students had most opportunities for skill practice (43.1% vs. 34.7% of lesson time, p <.05). Both teachers indicated that their planned lesson objectives were achieved. Conclusions: Modest improvements in MVPA can be realised in gymnastics, whose goals and characteristics seemingly contrast with engagement in cardio-respiratory health-enhancing physical activity. Integrating increased MVPA as a lesson objective can optimise students' active participation in lessons.</p> <p>Keywords: Girls; Health; Intervention; Physical activity; SOFIT</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-2">Introduction</hd> <p>School physical education is available to most young people and provides a context for regular and structured physical activity participation. Regular physical activity can have immediate health benefits by positively affecting body composition and musculoskeletal development (Malina <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref1">15</reflink>]). Furthermore, reduced prevalence of coronary heart disease risk factors has been observed among active youngsters (Gutin <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref2">10</reflink>]). In order to promote health-enhancing activity in young people, guidelines were formulated by the Health Education Authority (now Health Development Agency; Biddle <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref3">2</reflink>]). The primary recommendation relates to cardiorespiratory health, and advocates the accumulation of one hour's physical activity per day of at least moderate intensity (i.e., the equivalent of brisk walking). This can be achieved through lifestyle, recreational and structured activity forms. A secondary recommendation is that children take part in activities that help develop and maintain musculoskeletal health, on at least two occasions per week (Biddle <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>]). This target may be addressed through weight-bearing activities that focus on developing muscular strength, endurance and flexibility, and bone health.</p> <p>From this health perspective, it has been proposed that the goals of health-related physical education should be for students to: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref5">1</reflink>) take part in appropriate amounts of physical activity during lessons; and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref6">2</reflink>) become educated with the knowledge and skills to be physically active outside of school and throughout life (Simons-Morton, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref7">43</reflink>], p. 138). The diverse aims of physical education may hinder achievement of this first goal, as lessons may emphasise students' motor, cognitive, social, moral, spiritual and cultural development (Sallis & McKenzie, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref8">23</reflink>]). While these are valid and worthwhile areas of learning, they can contrast with participation in health-enhancing physical activity (i.e., goal 1; Simons-Morton, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref9">43</reflink>]). Such diversity of learning outcomes, variable teacher expertise, and the lack of central policy in relation to engagement in health-enhancing physical activity during physical education, most likely contributes to the sizeable variation in physical education activity levels (Stratton, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref10">47</reflink>]). Moreover, when one considers curriculum physical education's restricted time allocation, in terms of frequency and duration (Sport England, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref11">46</reflink>]), it can make only a limited contribution to help young people achieve recommended levels of activity. Realistically, physical education should be seen as one school-based outlet for physical activity, which complements the opportunities afforded to students before and after school, at lunchtimes, during break/play times, and in the community. However, despite these constraints, improving physical activity opportunities during lessons is a worthwhile aspiration (Sallis & McKenzie, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref12">23</reflink>]) and has been a research focus for some time.</p> <p>Interventions to increase physical activity in physical education have generally been successful (Fairclough & Stratton, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref13">8</reflink>]). Some have incorporated high intensity activities into lessons (e.g., shuttle running, jumping protocols) with the sole aim of increasing the students' cardiorespiratory load (Seliger <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref14">40</reflink>]; MacConnie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref15">13</reflink>]; Baquet <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref16">1</reflink>]). While these studies have achieved their aims, they have not accounted for the educational aspect of the lessons, or the effect of the interventions on students' physical activity motivation and attitudes. For these reasons, such designs are not recommended as they oppose the educational philosophy which underpins lifelong physical activity. Other studies have emphasised enhanced physical activity and motor development by permeating fitness activities into lessons focused on skill acquisition (Simons-Morton <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref17">44</reflink>]; Quinn & Strand, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref18">30</reflink>]; Raudsepp & Pall, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref19">31</reflink>]; Scantling <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref20">38</reflink>]; Everhart <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref21">4</reflink>]). Furthermore, the effect of different types of teacher supervision and feedback on activity levels has been studied (van der Mars <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref22">51</reflink>]; Schuldheisz & van der Mars, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref23">39</reflink>]). The highly successful CATCH (Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health) intervention (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref24">26</reflink>]) included a health-related physical education programme, staff development, and lesson feedback. Levels of cardiorespiratory health-enhancing moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) during lessons improved from 37.4% of lesson time at baseline, to 51.9% following the intervention (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref25">21</reflink>]). Improvements in MVPA were also noted during indoor lessons, and those taught by non-physical education specialists, both of which were observed to be among the least active at baseline (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref26">25</reflink>]). A significant element of this intervention was the integration of health-enhancing physical activity goals with other lesson objectives. The objectives-driven model of physical education lesson planning is generally regarded as good practice (Mawer, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref27">17</reflink>]) because objectives reflect teachers' intentions during lessons. From a physical activity perspective, these intentions have been shown to be predictive of active lessons (Martin <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref28">16</reflink>]). Moreover, teaching physically active lessons does not preclude teachers from also focusing on other lesson objectives (Martin <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref29">16</reflink>]). With appropriate guidance, teachers should work towards delivering active lessons, as well as achieving other important objectives, with the overriding aim of developing students' skills, attitudes and knowledge to engage in activity for a lifetime (NASPE, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref30">27</reflink>]). Furthermore, in lessons planned and taught in this manner, students are more likely to be both physically active and engaged in the learning process (Shen <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref31">41</reflink>]). Interventions such as CATCH demonstrate the potential for improving health-enhancing MVPA in lessons, whilst still promoting physical activity participation out of school through enjoyable and challenging physical education experiences (i.e., goal 2; Simons-Morton, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref32">43</reflink>]).</p> <p>Girls' activity participation during physical education is generally less frequent and of a lower intensity than that of boys (Stratton, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref33">47</reflink>]; LeMura <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref34">12</reflink>]; McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref35">20</reflink>]). This may be attributed to a number of variables, including variations in curriculum content, motivational changes, societal (peer and teacher) expectations and differences in skill development (Wolf <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref36">52</reflink>]; McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref37">20</reflink>]; Fairclough, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref38">5</reflink>]). Moreover, the physiological and psychosocial changes experienced during the high-school years may make them a particularly high risk period for girls to adopt sedentary habits (Rowland, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref39">35</reflink>]). As sedentary lifestyles are implicated in incidence of heart disease, which is the leading cause of death amongst UK women (Department of Health, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref40">3</reflink>]), the potential public health implications of low physical activity levels among girls could be serious. For this reason, physical education should be a significant medium to promote girls' health-enhancing physical activity within lessons, beyond the curriculum, and into the post-school years.</p> <p>The purpose of the investigation was twofold. First, to increase cardiorespiratory health-enhancing physical activity levels during girls' physical education, by manipulating the lesson contexts and teacher behaviours. Second, to achieve this without compromising other planned lesson objectives. To our knowledge there have been no other UK studies that have implemented a physical education activity intervention based on the integration of increased health-enhancing physical activity with other planned lesson objectives.</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-3">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0019851249-4">Participants and settings</hd> <p>Two classes of Year 7 girls (aged 11–12 years) from one co-educational high school in Merseyside, England, participated in the study. Girls from both classes returned written informed consent. Classes were randomly appointed to control (CON) and intervention (INT) conditions. Physical education lessons were timetabled for a single two-hour weekly period. Specialist physical education teachers taught single-sex classes in mixed ability groups of approximately 30–32 students.</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-5">Physical education lessons</hd> <p>Data were collected during a six-lesson unit of gymnastics. This activity was selected because during lessons students generally engage in relatively low levels of MVPA (Stratton, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref41">48</reflink>]; Fairclough, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref42">6</reflink>]). Furthermore, its aims arguably relate more to body control, quality of movement and musculoskeletal development than cardiorespiratory health. It was therefore hypothesised that this activity would provide a suitable test of the teaching intervention. Both CON and INT classes followed the same original lesson content and objectives. These focused on introducing basic gymnastic skills and developing consistency and quality of movement. The first lesson was an introduction to the concepts of form, tension, balance and aesthetic quality. It allowed the girls and teachers an opportunity to become sensitised to the presence of the video camera. It is acknowledged that one lesson is not a long time to become used to such equipment. However, the physical education department were proactive in their use of information and communication technology, and commonly incorporated video analysis and feedback within lessons. Thus, the teachers and students were accustomed to having cameras in the gymnasium. The first lesson also provided baseline data of the students' activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours that occurred in each class. Following these lessons, both classes attended for the next five weeks, during which time the INT class was exposed to the teaching intervention.</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-6">Instructions to teachers</hd> <p>Timetable constraints meant that it was not possible for the same teacher to teach both classes. Instead, a female and male physical educator taught the respective CON and INT classes. Both had more than four years' teaching experience and both usually taught their respective groups in other physical education activities. The CON class teacher was told that the study aimed to observe physical activity levels during regular, non-intensified physical education. She was instructed to teach her lessons as usual, making no attempt to deliberately increase physical activity. At no point was she told of the purpose of the intervention. Conversely, the INT class teacher was made fully aware that the study aimed to improve the levels of physical activity in his lessons. Moreover, he was advised that the lesson content and objectives should not deviate significantly from those originally described in the unit of work. The key principle of the intervention was that it was based on the INT teacher including enhanced physical activity levels as an additional planned lesson objective, <emph>alongside</emph> existing objectives from the unit of work. He was instructed to use these slightly modified lesson objectives to underpin his planning in relation to the following aspects.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> • <emph>Organisation of groups.</emph> Maximising opportunities for individual and small group practice through thoughtful use of equipment and resources. This would avoid pupils being stationary for long periods waiting their turn to practice.</item> <p></p> <item> • <emph>Organisation and use of space, equipment and resources.</emph> Making the most efficient use of working space and equipment to allow optimal activity.</item> <p></p> <item> • <emph>Teaching approaches.</emph> Appropriate selection of practice and discovery styles of delivery, depending on lesson circumstances.</item> <p></p> <item> • <emph>Lesson pace.</emph> Maintaining students' interest during lesson phases and having efficient transitions between them.</item> <p></p> <item> • <emph>Teacher positioning in relation to students.</emph> Circulating close to where students were working to offer feedback and demonstration when necessary.</item> <p></p> <item> • '<emph>Active learning</emph>'. Maximising the amount of time that the majority of students were physically active (i.e., 'time on task').</item> <p></p> <item> • <emph>Having fun.</emph> Making activities, and especially the more vigorous ones (e.g., pulse-raising elements of warm-up), as enjoyable and purposeful as possible, with a clearly defined focus, so pupils would concentrate more on taking part than their level of exertion.</item> <p></p> <item> • <emph>Minimising teacher-talking time.</emph> Allowing more time for practice and performance.</item> <p></p> <item> • <emph>Emphasising inclusion</emph>. Reinforcing that everyone should try to work at their own level, at an intensity level that felt comfortable.</item> </ulist> <p>These elements of the intervention were not necessarily innovative, as they were based primarily on recognised effective pedagogical practice (Silverman, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref43">42</reflink>]). The key was that the INT lessons had increased physical activity as a primary objective alongside existing ones, rather than as an add-on or afterthought. It was therefore hypothesised that enhanced physical activity would be consciously incorporated into the lesson planning and delivery. As a quality assurance measure, each lesson was discussed prior to teaching with the first author, who offered feedback and made suggestions where necessary.</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-7">Data collection</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0019851249-8">Lesson observation</hd> <p>Each lesson was recorded on videotape using a camcorder (Sony DCR-TRV-140E) situated in the far corner of the gymnasium. Video-recording of the lessons began when the entire class arrived in the room. Recording was completed at the end of each lesson and the time noted. A previously validated observation instrument (SOFIT; System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time; Rowe <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref44">33</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref45">34</reflink>]; McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref46">23</reflink>]; Pope <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref47">29</reflink>]) was used on a lesson-to-lesson basis to establish levels of physical activity, lesson context and teacher behaviour. Detailed descriptions of the SOFIT protocol can be found elsewhere (McKenzie, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref48">18</reflink>]; McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref49">26</reflink>]), although a brief overview is presented below.</p> <p>On a rotational basis, the physical activity levels of four randomly selected students, the lesson contexts in which they occurred, and teacher behaviours were observed and coded throughout each lesson. Using momentary time sampling, students were coded every 20 seconds to determine the intensity of their physical activity. Codes 1 to 4 described the observed student's body position (i.e., lying down, sitting, standing or walking), and code 5 (very active) identified when the student was expending more energy than during normal walking. The observed activity of individual students was recorded at the moment that the 10-second observation interval ended (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref50">22</reflink>]). The lesson context was also coded every 20 seconds following a hierarchical format. Firstly, it was decided whether lesson time was allocated for general content (i.e., <emph>management</emph>) or for actual physical education (i.e., <emph>subject matter</emph>) content. If the latter occurred, it was then coded as either knowledge content (i.e., <emph>general knowledge</emph> or <emph>physical fitness</emph>) or motor content (i.e., <emph>physical activity</emph>). If motor content was occurring, it was then coded as either <emph>fitness</emph>, <emph>skill practice/performance</emph> or <emph>game play</emph> contexts. Partial interval recording was used to code the teacher's behaviour into one of six categories. The category of <emph>promotes fitness</emph> was coded if the teacher prompted student engagement in physical activity. The second category, <emph>demonstrates fitness</emph> was coded when the teacher modelled or engaged in fitness activities (including warm-up exercises and callisthenics). The remaining categories of <emph>instructs generally, manages, observes</emph> and <emph>off-task</emph> described teacher behaviours which were not directly related to student opportunities for physical activity (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref51">22</reflink>]). Each of the selected students was observed for four consecutive minutes, after which time the next student was observed. Following observation and coding of the fourth student, the observation rotated back to the first student. The protocol continued in this manner for the duration of each lesson.</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-9">SOFIT observer training</hd> <p>Lessons were analysed using SOFIT following a training period that consisted of studying the coding protocols and analysing pre-recorded videotapes of other physical education lessons unconnected to the current study. In accordance with recommendations from previous studies (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref52">22</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref53">19</reflink>]), interval-by-interval intra-observer agreements in excess of 85% were achieved before the study lessons were coded. An assistant underwent a similar period of training after the first author had met the 85% agreement standard. In addition to learning the coding protocols and observing training videotapes, discussion sessions were also used to clarify any instances of ambiguity. The assistant achieved the 85% criterion on the pre-recorded lessons before embarking on the reliability assessment of the study lessons.</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-10">SOFIT reliability measures</hd> <p>Inter-observer reliability assessments were calculated for 20% of lessons, which satisfied the suggested minimum number (McKenzie, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref54">18</reflink>]). These were randomly selected so as to include one from each of the CON and INT lessons. The first author and the assistant observed the videotapes of the lessons and independently recorded the same students while being paced by a pre-recorded CD. Interval-by-interval agreement between observers was 91% for activity level, 87% for lesson context and 89.6% for teacher behaviour. These values exceeded the minimum levels of agreement suggested by van der Mars [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref55">50</reflink>]. To reduce the possibility of observer drift the lead researcher observed and coded two previously analysed videotapes used in the training period. This took place after five of the study lessons had been analysed. As the criterion 85% agreement was satisfied, the remaining five lessons were coded.</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-11">Teacher evaluations</hd> <p>To establish whether lesson objectives were achieved, both teachers completed a simple evaluation form after each lesson. This listed each of their planned lesson objectives and they were asked to indicate whether or not each one had successfully been met. Space for comments was also included. These forms were completed as soon as possible after the lesson and returned on a weekly basis.</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-12">Data analyses</hd> <p>The dependent variables reflected class factors, student activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours. Class factors related to lesson length. Student activity levels included proportions of the time spent at various activity levels and three summary measures of activity. These were: (a) the proportion of lesson time engaged in MVPA; (b) estimated mean energy expenditure rate per child (EER); and (c) estimated total energy expenditure per child per lesson (TEE). Time spent in MVPA was obtained by summing the proportion of lesson time spent walking and being very active. Estimated EER was calculated using energy expenditure constants derived from heart rate monitoring during the original SOFIT validation (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref56">23</reflink>]). Estimated TEE was calculated by multiplying EER by the lesson length. Lesson context and teacher behaviour variables included proportions of time spent in seven lesson contexts, and six teacher behaviour categories, respectively (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref57">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>Baseline SOFIT data were collated as the percentage of lesson time spent in each category. Exploratory analyses employed Shapiro-Wilk and Levene's tests to check for normality and homogeneity of variance. Where data were not normally distributed or homogenous, and log transformation was unable to correct the situation, they were ranked. Independent <emph>t</emph>-tests were applied to the ranked data to identify inter-group differences. From the resultant <emph>t</emph> values, <emph>L</emph> statistics were derived by hand, following the procedure described by Thomas <emph>et al.</emph>[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref58">49</reflink>]. This method is recommended as an alternative to non-parametric tests, which may lack the statistical power of their parametric equivalents. Where applicable, <emph>L</emph> values were reported in the results. Ranked data were used for the SOFIT categories of <emph>very active</emph> student behaviour, <emph>general knowledge</emph> lesson context, <emph>game/performance</emph> lesson context, and teacher behaviours of <emph>observation</emph> and <emph>engaged in other task</emph>. All other data that met parametric assumptions were analysed without ranking using independent <emph>t</emph>-tests. All analyses were performed using SPSS 11.0.1 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL), and statistical significance was set at <emph>p</emph> < .05.</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-13">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0019851249-14">Baseline lessons</hd> <p>Baseline SOFIT data suggested that in both classes the majority of lesson time was spent in general knowledge (CON = 41.2%, INT = 52.2%) and skill practice contexts (CON = 36%, INT = 30.1%; see Figure 1). More of the INT teacher's lesson focused on observation (14.5% <emph>vs</emph> 2.6%), while the CON teacher spent more time on class management (18% <emph>vs</emph> 10.8%) and general instruction (73.2% <emph>vs</emph> 66.1%). The CON class had greater observed MVPA (17.5% <emph>vs</emph> 12.9%), estimated EER (0.063 kcal  ·  kg<sups> − 1</sups>  ·  min<sups> − 1</sups><emph>vs</emph> 0.057 kcal  ·  kg<sups> − 1</sups>  ·  min<sups> − 1</sups>) and estimated TEE (5.35 kcal  ·  kg<sups> − 1</sups><emph>vs</emph> 3.37 kcal  ·  kg<sups> − 1</sups>) than their INT peers. The major discrepancy between the data was the lesson duration (CON = 85 minutes, INT = 59.1 minutes). Staff absence on the day of the INT class's lesson caused the start of it to be substantially delayed.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1 Baseline SOFIT category data</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-15">Intervention lessons</hd> <p>Lesson length averaged 82.4 ± 7.8 minutes and 76.0 ± 2.7 minutes for the CON and INT groups, respectively. The INT lessons were shorter because they followed a morning assembly, which delayed the students' arrival in the physical education department. SOFIT category data are presented in Table 1. Both classes spent the greatest proportion of lesson time sitting and standing, but INT students engaged in significantly more MVPA than those in the CON class (18.5% <emph>vs</emph> 13.5%; <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref59">8</reflink>)= − 2.35, p < .05). Estimated EER was 8% greater among INT students compared to CON students (0.062 ± 0.005 kcal  ·  kg  ·  min<sups> − 1</sups><emph>vs</emph> 0.057 ± 0.002 kcal  ·  kg  ·  min<sups> − 1</sups>; <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref60">8</reflink>)= − 2.09, p = .07). Estimated TEE was similar between classes (INT = 4.71 ± 0.16 kcal  ·  kg<sups> − 1</sups>; CON = 4.73 ± 0.44 kcal  ·  kg<sups> − 1</sups>), even though CON lessons were 6.4 minutes longer (Figure 2). The proportion of time apportioned to management, general knowledge and fitness activities was similar between classes, though INT students had significantly more opportunities for skill practice (43.1% <emph>vs</emph> 34.7%; <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref61">8</reflink>)= − 2.81, p < .05). The CON teacher devoted more time to management tasks compared to the INT teacher (18.4% <emph>vs</emph> 13.5%), who included more general instruction (75.4% <emph>vs</emph> 66%) in his lessons.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2 Lesson-by-lesson summary of estimated TEE and EER</p> <p>Table 1. Mean (±SD) proportion of lesson time in each SOFIT category</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>SOFIT variable</td><td char=".">No. lessons</td><td char=".">CON group</td><td char=".">INT group</td><td char=".">t</td><td char=".">L</td><td char=".">p</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td><italic>Student activity</italic> (% lesson)</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td> Lying down</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">1.6 ± 1.6</td><td char=".">1.9 ± 0.2</td><td char="."> − 0.34</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.74</td></tr><tr><td> Sitting</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">55.7 ± 8.2</td><td char=".">47.4 ± 7.1</td><td char=".">1.71</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.13</td></tr><tr><td> Standing</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">29.1 ± 8.8</td><td char=".">32.5 ± 6.5</td><td char="."> − 0.69</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.51</td></tr><tr><td> Walking</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">7.1 ± 1.8</td><td char=".">8.3 ± 2.6</td><td char="."> − 0.87</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.41</td></tr><tr><td> Very active</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6.4 ± 1.3</td><td char=".">10.1 ± 3.8</td><td char="."> − 2.1</td><td char=".">2.75</td><td char="."> > .05</td></tr><tr><td> MVPA</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">13.5 ± 2.2</td><td char=".">18.5 ± 4.2</td><td char="."> − 2.35</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.047</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Lesson context</italic> (% lesson)</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td> Management</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">17.7 ± 5.9</td><td char=".">13.2 ± 7.7</td><td char=".">1.03</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.33</td></tr><tr><td> General knowledge</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">39.4 ± 3.8</td><td char=".">37.2 ± 6.0</td><td char=".">0.69</td><td char=".">0.3</td><td char="."> > .05</td></tr><tr><td> Fitness knowledge</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">0.0 ± 0.0</td><td char=".">0.0 ± 0.0</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">–</td></tr><tr><td> Fitness activity</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">7.1 ± 3.1</td><td char=".">5.6 ± 1.1</td><td char=".">1.0</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.34</td></tr><tr><td> Skill practice</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">34.7 ± 4.0</td><td char=".">43.1 ± 5.3</td><td char="."> − 2.81</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.023</td></tr><tr><td> Game play/performance</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">0.9 ± 1.2</td><td char=".">0.9 ± 1.3</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">0.002</td><td char="."> > .05</td></tr><tr><td> Other</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">0.0 ± 0.0</td><td char=".">0.0 ± 0.0</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">–</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Teacher behaviour</italic> (% lesson)</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td> Promotes fitness</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">0.0 ± 0.0</td><td char=".">0.0 ± 0.0</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">–</td></tr><tr><td> Demonstrates fitness</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6.5 ± 1.7</td><td char=".">5.7 ± 1.1</td><td char=".">0.89</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.4</td></tr><tr><td> General instruction</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">66.0 ± 10.8</td><td char=".">75.4 ± 5.8</td><td char="."> − 1.7</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.13</td></tr><tr><td> Manages</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">18.4 ± 5.6</td><td char=".">13.5 ± 7.6</td><td char=".">1.15</td><td char=".">–</td><td char=".">.28</td></tr><tr><td> Observes</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">5.9 ± 6.7</td><td char=".">4.4 ± 2.6</td><td char=".">0.46</td><td char=".">0.13</td><td char="."> > .05</td></tr><tr><td> Other task</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">3.1 ± 2.3</td><td char=".">1.0 ± 0.9</td><td char=".">1.9</td><td char=".">1.84</td><td char="."> > .05</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0019851249-16">Teacher evaluations</hd> <p>Both teachers expressed that they achieved their planned objectives for each lesson. The INT teacher indicated that the inclusion of improved MVPA as a lesson objective did not appear to compromise student learning. Moreover, he evaluated the lessons in a positive manner, highlighting that the revised organisational and teaching approaches led to more student time on task and less opportunities for passive lesson episodes (e.g., teacher explanations and demonstrations where students observed from sitting or lying positions).</p> <hd id="AN0019851249-17">Discussion</hd> <p>This study employed systematic observation to examine activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours during girls' gymnastics lessons. The primary purpose was to assess whether an intervention based on inclusion of increased physical activity as an additional planned lesson objective, could improve students' MVPA while still meeting other planned objectives. Actual lesson length averaged only 69% (CON) and 63% (INT) of the scheduled two-hour lesson duration. These proportions are similar to those reported in American middle school physical education with students of a similar age (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref62">20</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref63">24</reflink>]). Significant amounts of allocated time were lost while students answered the roll call, received instructions, changed, and walked to and from the gymnasium. Reducing these transition times by more efficient practice and procedures could greatly increase student opportunities for physical activity. However, there are limits on the extent that transition times could be reduced, as these processes are a necessary part of physical education lessons.</p> <p>The data suggest that this type of intervention has the potential to improve levels of cardiorespiratory health-enhancing activity. The first study aim was achieved, as the INT class were observed to engage in around three minutes more MVPA than the CON girls. Though relatively modest, these significantly greater activity levels were reinforced by the differences in estimated EER, which approached statistical significance. Moreover, the groups' estimated TEE values were alike (CON = 4.73 kcal  ·  kg<sups> − 1</sups>; INT = 4.71 kcal  ·  kg<sups> − 1</sups>), even though the CON lessons lasted for 6.4 minutes longer than the INT ones. This lends further support for the intervention, in that the INT lessons were characterised by a greater volume and intensity of cardiorespiratory health-related activity than the CON lessons. The second study aim was met through the INT teacher's subjective evaluations, which confirmed that enhanced levels of activity did not compromise other planned lesson objectives.</p> <p>The intervention achieved its aims because it centred on modified lesson objectives, which underpinned the planning and delivery of the content. Through efficient application of sound pedagogical principles, the INT lessons maximised opportunities for active student participation. This was evidenced by the INT students spending more time walking and engaging in very active behaviour than the CON class. Moreover, the INT lessons involved the students in skill practice for four minutes longer than the CON lessons, and devoted around five minutes less time to management. Longer and more frequent episodes of free skill practice allowed the students to work independently of the teacher and gave the option for repeated practice of skills and sequences. Augmented practice occasions may effectively promote motor skill learning (McKenzie <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref64">20</reflink>]). Furthermore, students possessing superior motor skills are likely to be more capable of being physically active during lessons (Rink, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref65">32</reflink>]). Thus, it is probable that a satisfactory level of motor skill competence will better enable physical activity participation within physical education, which may help lay the foundation for long-term physical activity (Malina, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref66">14</reflink>]). The INT teacher spent 9.6% more time (approximately three minutes) giving general instruction than his CON colleague. However, this did not cause student activity to decline, because the instruction was characterised by concise delivery and articulation of supplementary information to small groups or the whole group whilst they worked. The resultant effect was that the INT teacher allowed more time for active participation through skill practice. This was done while still instructing, intervening and feeding back to the students, without taking them off task.</p> <p>Physical education's unique contribution to the curriculum is that students learn through being physically active (Gilliver, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref67">9</reflink>]; PEAUK, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref68">28</reflink>]). While this supposition is commonly accepted, the students in this study spent around 80% of lesson time being stationary, by either sitting (∼50% of time) or standing. As a result, they spent only 13.5% (CON) and 18.5% (INT) of lessons engaged in MVPA. However, these values are greater than those reported in the only other published observational study to assess MVPA in gymnastics lessons (Simons Morton <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref69">45</reflink>]). Furthermore, students in both classes spent only very small portions of time involved in very active or vigorous behaviour. Similarly low levels of vigorous physical activity have also been reported in studies that have used heart rate monitoring and accelerometry to measure activity (Stratton, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref70">48</reflink>]; Fairclough & Stratton, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref71">7</reflink>]). However, it should be noted that heart rate monitoring, accelerometry and systematic observation measure different dimensions of physical activity (Saris, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref72">37</reflink>]), and thus data are not directly comparable between instruments. The low levels of vigorous activity may suggest that the nature of gymnastics is such that students predominantly take part in light and moderate intensity cardiorespiratory activity during lessons, rather than more intensive or vigorous activity. When the MVPA data were converted to absolute values, the CON and INT classes accumulated around 11 and 14 minutes of MVPA, respectively. This means that these lessons were making only a small contribution to the cardiorespiratory health-enhancing goal of one hour's moderate activity per day (Biddle <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref73">2</reflink>]). 'Educational' gymnastics lessons often employ a student-centred process of planning, practice, observation and evaluating, which would go some way to explaining the lack of cardiorespiratory activity in these lessons. However, gymnastics is an ideal activity for promoting musculoskeletal health through low impact, weight-bearing and stretching activities, which are appropriate for this age group (Harris, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref74">11</reflink>]). As this study did not assess the musculoskeletal dimension of physical activity, we are unable to speculate on the extent to which the lessons may have been beneficial in this respect.</p> <p>A strength of this study was that it employed a validated observation instrument to measure physical activity. SOFIT allowed activity behaviours to be recorded alongside the lesson contexts and teacher behaviours. This provided an overview of the lesson dynamics and allowed links between student activity, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours to be explored. Furthermore, the intervention utilised the lesson objective of augmented activity levels, which has been demonstrated to reflect teachers' intentions, and therefore predict their teaching of active lessons (Martin <emph>et al.</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref75">16</reflink>]). The intervention was also underpinned by sound pedagogical practice and modifications, rather than intensified content that was not specific to gymnastics. Suggesting the pedagogical means by which physical activity might be increased appeared to focus the INT teacher's planning and teaching on achieving all of their lesson objectives. By virtue of the fact that the CON teacher's lessons were less active, it could be speculated that she did not address these aspects of pedagogy as thoroughly as her colleague. However, it is acknowledged that she also was not consciously trying to improve activity levels in her lessons. A further strength of the study was that the lessons were planned and delivered by the regular physical education teachers in the school. This maintained a good level of ecological validity, and allowed the teachers an important element of ownership over their involvement in the research process.</p> <p>Several factors need to be considered when interpreting the results. First, the data were derived from a small sample in one school, and thus, there could be local factors which influence how physical education is conducted there. Second, the efficacy of the intervention may have been more strictly tested over more lessons, during a greater range of activities and with students of different ages and sex. Third, it is possible that the CON lessons are taught differently, and that students in both classes act differently when observers and video equipment are not present. Fourth, although the baseline lessons provided some indication of student activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours during gymnastics, it is unknown whether the two lessons were truly representative. Introducing the intervention midway through a longer unit of work (e.g., 12 lessons) using a quasi-experimental interrupted time-series design, would have provided a more thorough test of its effectiveness. Unfortunately, units of work lasted for only six to eight lessons in the school where the research took place. Although lesson objectives, content, teaching environment and the students' previous physical education experience were matched, the two classes were taught by a female and male teacher. This may have threatened the internal validity of the study to an extent, as it is possible that the teachers did some things differently that SOFIT was unable to detect. Furthermore, the students may have reacted differently to one teacher than they would have done with the other. These possibilities are readily acknowledged, but by keeping each class with their regular teacher, the ecological soundness of the study was arguably strengthened.</p> <p>This investigation observed that students engaged in relatively low levels of MVPA during curriculum gymnastics. However, the intervention demonstrated that significant, if modest improvements in cardiorespiratory health-enhancing activity levels can be made during lessons, without negatively affecting other planned objectives. Such gains may have been brought about by the inclusion of increased MVPA as a planned objective for each INT lesson. By consciously focusing on MVPA alongside other lesson objectives when planning lessons, the INT teacher was able to deliver the content through modified teaching and class management strategies, which combined to enhance students' active participation in lessons. It is acknowledged that individual lesson circumstances will dictate the extent to which improved student activity can be achieved. Nonetheless, if teachers use MVPA objectives to plan, organise and deliver lessons, appropriate increases in activity levels can be realised in physical education activities that may not necessarily be most suited to promoting cardiorespiratory health.</p> <ref id="AN0019851249-18"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref5" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Baquet, G., Berthoin, S. and Van Praagh, E.2002. 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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Effects of a Physical Education Intervention to Improve Student Activity Levels
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Fairclough%2C+Stuart+J%2E%22">Fairclough, Stuart J.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Stratton%2C+Gareth%22">Stratton, Gareth</searchLink>
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  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Physical+Education+and+Sport+Pedagogy%22"><i>Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy</i></searchLink>. Feb 2006 11(1):29-44.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 16
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2006
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+7%22">Grade 7</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Education%22">Physical Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Activities%22">Physical Activities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Activity+Level%22">Physical Activity Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Health+Promotion%22">Health Promotion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Females%22">Females</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preadolescents%22">Preadolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+7%22">Grade 7</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Analysis%22">Comparative Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Effectiveness%22">Program Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Observation%22">Observation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Participation%22">Student Participation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Behavior%22">Teacher Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Health+Behavior%22">Health Behavior</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22United+Kingdom+%28England%29%22">United Kingdom (England)</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/17408980500467613
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1740-8989
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: School physical education is available to most young people and provides a structured context for physical activity participation. Regular physical activity during childhood can confer acute and long-term health benefits. From this health perspective one of the goals of physical education is for students to take part in appropriate amounts of physical activity during lesson time. However, the diverse aims of physical education (e.g., motor, cognitive, social development, etc.) may hinder achievement of this goal as they can contrast with participation in health-enhancing physical activity. Despite these constraints improving physical activity opportunities during lessons is a worthwhile aspiration and has been a research focus for some time. Purpose: To increase cardio respiratory health-enhancing physical activity levels during girls' gymnastics lessons by manipulating the lesson contexts and teacher behaviours, and to achieve this without compromising other planned lesson objectives. Participants and setting: Two classes of 30-32 Year 7 girls (aged 11-12 years) from one co-educational high school in Merseyside, England participated in the study. Classes were randomly appointed to control (CON) and intervention (INT) conditions. Intervention: The key principle of the pedagogical intervention was that the INT teacher including enhanced physical activity levels as an additional planned lesson objective, "alongside" existing objectives from a gymnastics unit of work. The INT teacher used these slightly modified lesson objectives to underpin the lesson planning and delivery. Research design: The research incorporated a quasi-experimental design whereby both the CON and INT classes were taught gymnastics lessons based on the same unit of work over a six-week period. Following an initial baseline lesson, the CON class participated in lessons planned and taught in the regular way, while the INT class took part in lessons that employed the intervention principles integrated into the planning and delivery. Data collection: Student activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours were quantified over a six-lesson gymnastics unit using a validated direct observation instrument (SOFIT). After each lesson the CON and INT teachers completed evaluations indicating whether lesson objectives were met. Data analysis: The dependent variables reflected lesson length, student activity levels, lesson contexts and teacher behaviours. Student activity levels included proportions of the time spent at various activity levels and three summary measures of activity, which were, (a) the proportion of lesson time engaged in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), (b) estimated mean energy expenditure rate per child (EER), and (c) estimated total energy expenditure per child per lesson (TEE). Data were analysed between classes using independent t-tests. Findings: Both classes engaged in relatively low levels of MVPA, although the INT students took part in significantly more than the CON students (18.5% vs. 13.5% of lesson time, p less than 0.05). EER was 8% greater among the INT class compared to the CON class (p = 0.07). TEE was similar between classes, even though CON lessons were 6.4 min longer. Furthermore, INT students had most opportunities for skill practice (43.1% vs. 34.7% of lesson time, p less than 0.05). Both teachers indicated that their planned lesson objectives were achieved. Conclusions: Modest improvements in MVPA can be realised in gymnastics, whose goals and characteristics seemingly contrast with engagement in cardio-respiratory health-enhancing physical activity. Integrating increased MVPA as a lesson objective can optimise students' active participation in lessons. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)
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  Data: As Provided
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  Data: 52
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2008
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ818166
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        Value: 10.1080/17408980500467613
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      – Text: English
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      Pagination:
        PageCount: 16
        StartPage: 29
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      – SubjectFull: Physical Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Activities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Activity Level
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
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      – SubjectFull: Preadolescents
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      – SubjectFull: Grade 7
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Behavior
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      – SubjectFull: Health Behavior
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      – SubjectFull: United Kingdom (England)
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      – TitleFull: Effects of a Physical Education Intervention to Improve Student Activity Levels
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