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Patterns and Predictors of Involvement among Fathers of Children Born to Adolescent Mothers

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Title: Patterns and Predictors of Involvement among Fathers of Children Born to Adolescent Mothers
Language: English
Authors: Lewin, Amy, Mitchell, Stephanie J., Burrell, Lori
Source: Journal of Family Social Work. 2011 14(4):335-353.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Physical Description: PDF
Page Count: 19
Publication Date: 2011
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Mothers, Fathers, Parent Child Relationship, Parent Participation, Early Parenthood, Adolescents, Predictor Variables, Urban Areas, African Americans, Interviews, Intimacy, Interpersonal Relationship
DOI: 10.1080/10522158.2011.587178
ISSN: 1052-2158
Abstract: Father involvement may be an important support for children born to adolescent mothers. This study examines patterns and predictors of father involvement, as reported by adolescent mothers, from their child's infancy through toddlerhood. Data were collected from urban, primarily African American, adolescent mothers (N = 138) in four interviews, over a 24-month period. The percentage of fathers categorized as "highly involved" decreased significantly from baseline to 12-month follow-up and was stable through 24 months. The romantic status of the mother-father relationship was the strongest predictor of whether father involvement was consistently high, consistently low, or decreased over time. (Contains 4 tables.)
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 42
Entry Date: 2011
Accession Number: EJ934403
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0063515582;86z01jul.11;2019Mar27.12:12;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0063515582-1">Patterns and Predictors of Involvement Among Fathers of Children Born to Adolescent Mothers. </title> <p>Father involvement may be an important support for children born to adolescent mothers. This study examines patterns and predictors of father involvement, as reported by adolescent mothers, from their child's infancy through toddlerhood. Data were collected from urban, primarily African American, adolescent mothers (N = 138) in four interviews, over a 24-month period. The percentage of fathers categorized as "highly involved" decreased significantly from baseline to 12-month follow-up and was stable through 24 months. The romantic status of the mother–father relationship was the strongest predictor of whether father involvement was consistently high, consistently low, or decreased over time.</p> <p>Keywords: father involvement; mother-father relationship; toddlerhood; adolescent mother</p> <p>Although rates of adolescent pregnancy and childbirth have declined in America over the past decade, they remain high, particularly among low-income, minority youth (Ventura, Abma, Mosher, & Henshaw, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref1">42</reflink>]). Because adolescent mothers face the transition to parenthood at the same time that they are grappling with the developmental challenges of adolescence, they often face significant stressors, including limited education, poverty (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref2">7</reflink>]), unstable or conflicted relationships (Lewin, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref3">33</reflink>]), and high levels of depression (Mollborn & Morningstar, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref4">34</reflink>]). Similarly, a greater risk for adverse outcomes, including drug use, gang membership, unemployment, school dropout, and teen parenthood, has been documented in the children of adolescent mothers (Jaffee, Caspi, Moffitt, Taylor, & Dickson, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref5">27</reflink>]; Pogarsky, Thornberry, & Lizotte, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref6">39</reflink>]). Such reports have led policy makers, researchers, and service providers to turn their attention to fathers, who could potentially buffer their children from risks associated with adolescent parenting (Cutrona, Hessling, Bacon, & Russell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref7">12</reflink>]).</p> <p>Mounting evidence suggests that father involvement, which Lamb and colleagues (Lamb, Pleck, Charnov, & Levine, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref8">31</reflink>]) conceptualized as accessibility, engagement, and responsibility, contributes to an array of positive child outcomes, including enhanced cognitive development (Black, Dubowitz, & Starr, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref9">1</reflink>]) and social development (Coley & Medeiros, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]; King, Harris, & Heard, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref11">29</reflink>]). These positive effects of father involvement have been reported even among never-married fathers who do not reside with their children (Howard, Burke Lefever, Borkowski, & Whitman, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref12">25</reflink>]), as is often the situation for fathers who partnered with adolescent mothers (Ventura et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref13">42</reflink>]). One study found that toddlers with involved nonresident fathers showed higher levels of self-regulation and lower levels of aggression than children with fathers who were not consistently involved (Cabrera et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref14">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>The father involvement literature has, to date, focused almost exclusively on adult fathers. However, compared to adult fathers, adolescent fathers are generally less knowledgeable about child development (Dallas, Wilson, & Salgado, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref15">13</reflink>]), more likely to engage in antisocial behavior (Florsheim, Moore, Zollinger, MacDonald, & Sumida, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref16">18</reflink>]), less educated, and more economically disadvantaged (Fletcher & Wolfe, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>]; Marsiglio, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref18">36</reflink>]). Not all of the male partners of adolescent mothers are adolescents themselves; multiple studies have found that, on average, fathers of children born to adolescent mothers are approximately 2 to 3 years older than the mothers, although they are still quite young (Futris & Schoppe-Sullivan, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref19">20</reflink>]; Gee & Rhodes, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref20">22</reflink>]; Krishnakumar & Black, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref21">30</reflink>]; Lewin, Mitchell, Burrell, Beers, & Cheng, 2009). One study that examined the effect of father involvement on social-emotional development, specifically for children born to adolescent mothers, found that children who had consistent contact with their fathers during their first 8 years had fewer behavior problems and better reading and math scores at age 10. Further, father involvement seemed to protect children from behavior problems associated with having high-risk mothers (Howard et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref22">25</reflink>]). This suggests that father involvement has benefits for children born to adolescent mothers, yet some studies indicate that father involvement decreases as children grow older (Furstenburg & Harris, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref23">19</reflink>]). Research on low-income, minority fathers suggests that a steep decline in frequency of contact often occurs before children reach preschool age (Lerman, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref24">32</reflink>]).</p> <p>Taken together, these studies suggest that father involvement may be an important source of support for children born to adolescent mothers, but that involvement tends to decline over time. Thus, interventions that increase and support the sustained involvement of fathers may be a valuable way of enhancing the development of children born to adolescent mothers. Researchers have begun to investigate variables that predict father involvement and therefore may inform such interventions. Kalil, Ziol-Guest, and Coley ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref25">28</reflink>]) found that teen mothers' positive relationship with the father and the father's family predicted sustained father involvement, but stronger support of the teen mother from her mother and coresidence with her mother predicted low and/or decreasing father involvement. Gee, McNerney, Reiter, and Leaman ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref26">21</reflink>]) also found that, among a national sample of teen parents, a positive parental relationship predicted increased father involvement with 3-year-old children. In a sample of adult, low-income families, Coley and Hernandez ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref27">9</reflink>]) found that fathers' human capital predicted increased father involvement. Although these studies provide important data, information specifically about the decline in father involvement and the individual, relationship, and family-level factors that predict more sustained involvement is needed. Cabrera, Fitzgerald, Bradley, and Roggman ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref28">2</reflink>]) proposed a heuristic model of father involvement, which posits that father involvement is predicted by a range of variables that can be categorized as father characteristics (e.g., age, employment, education), family characteristics (e.g., maternal depression), and contextual factors (e.g., mother–father relationship).</p> <p>The current study utilized this heuristic model to extend the above research by investigating the following questions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref29">1</reflink>) What are the patterns of father involvement during infancy and early toddlerhood, specifically among fathers of children born to urban, minority, adolescent mothers? (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref30">2</reflink>) Which father characteristics, family characteristics, and mother–father relationship qualities predict change and/or stability in father involvement in this population? Understanding the role of such predictors is an important first step in identifying mechanisms that may support sustained positive father involvement.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-2">METHOD</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0063515582-3">Sample</hd> <p>Participants were recruited into this 2-year study between September 2001 and January 2005 from a hospital-based teen-tot clinic that provides comprehensive health services to teen parents and their children in a large urban community. Data for the current study were collected as part of a longitudinal, randomized control trial of a home-based intervention designed to strengthen mental health and parenting skills of adolescent mothers. The Institutional Review Board at Children's National Medical Center approved all study procedures and materials.</p> <p>Mothers who were 20 years old or younger, with a child 12 months old or younger, were eligible for the intervention study. Of 273 eligible mothers, 138 (51%) agreed to participate and were randomized into intervention or control groups. The majority of mothers who refused cited lack of time or lack of interest as reasons for not participating. The current study draws on data collected from mothers in the control and intervention groups. There were no statistically significant group differences in mother-reported levels of father involvement. The overwhelming majority (94%) of participating mothers identified themselves as African American.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-4">Procedures</hd> <p>During clinic visits, adolescent mothers were approached by a research assistant and informed about the study. Those who expressed interest in participating were visited in their homes by a research assistant who obtained written informed consent from the mother or her parent/guardian before conducting an approximately 1-hour long structured baseline interview with the mother. Follow-up interviews included the same instruments as the structured baseline interview.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-5">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0063515582-6">FATHER INVOLVEMENT</hd> <p>Interview questions about father involvement were drawn from an evaluation of the Hawaii Healthy Start program, a home visiting program for families at risk for child abuse (Duggan et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref31">15</reflink>]). Accessibility was measured by asking mothers to indicate how frequently they see their baby's father using a 6-point scale from 0 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 5 (<emph>every day</emph>). Because we were interested in the question of consistency versus instability in father involvement and wanted comparability with prior research (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref32">7</reflink>]; Kalil et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref33">28</reflink>]), we created a binary variable for father accessibility (1 = <emph>at least several days per week</emph>, 0 = <emph>less than several days per week</emph>).</p> <p>Theoretical support for the instrument's validity is derived from Lamb's (Lamb et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref34">31</reflink>]) typology of the father's role as comprising accessibility, engagement in child care tasks, and sharing of responsibility for the child's well-being. Empirical support for the instrument's construct validity is derived from research demonstrating theoretically sound associations of maternal expectations for the father's role in the child's first year of life with her desire for his participation in child rearing, the strength of the parents' relationship, the mother's perceptions of the father as a parent, and the father's prenatal involvement (Grant, Duggan, Andrews, & Serwint, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref35">23</reflink>]). In addition, maternal report of the father's involvement in parenting during infancy using the instrument has been shown to be positively associated with the strength of the parents' relationship (Duggan et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref36">15</reflink>]). The engagement and responsibility scales have been shown to have good internal reliability as indicated by Cronbach's alphas of 0.86 and 0.89, respectively (Duggan et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref37">15</reflink>]).</p> <p>Mothers' expectations of father engagement was measured by asking mothers six items about how often in the next 12 months they thought their child's father would perform various child care tasks (e.g., diaper changing, playing with the baby). Mothers responded using a 5-point frequency scale from 0 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 4 (<emph>very often</emph>) and, similar to accessibility, each of the six engagement items were dichotomized as 1 (<emph>often/very often</emph>) or 0 (<emph>less than often</emph>). The sum of these six items was recoded into a binary variable for father engagement (1 = <emph>engaged in at least four child care tasks</emph>, 0 = <emph>engaged in less than four tasks</emph>).</p> <p>Although there is some evidence independently linking the distinct components of father involvement to positive child outcomes (Palkovitz, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>]), theoretically children benefit most when fathers are accessible and positively engaged (Lamb et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref39">31</reflink>]). Thus, in the multivariate analyses, father accessibility and engagement, which were highly correlated at.58 (phi correlation coefficient), were combined and recoded such that, if mothers reported seeing the father at least several days per week and expected engagement in at least four of six child care tasks, they were given a score of 1 (high) on father involvement.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-7">FATHER AND FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS</hd> <p>Child age rounded to the nearest month was computed from date of birth and interview date. Mothers provided sociodemographic information about themselves and their baby's father, including age, number of mother's and father's (other) children, educational attainment, and employment status. Mothers also reported each person who lived with them, and intergenerational household structure was coded <emph>1</emph> for mothers who lived with their own mothers and/or grandmothers and <emph>0</emph> for all other arrangements. Because some researchers have suggested an inverse relationship between father involvement and adolescent mothers' support from their own mothers (Kalil et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref40">28</reflink>]), participants were asked three questions related to the receipt of emotional support: "during the past month, who did you talk to about things that are personal and private," "during the past month, who actually let you know when they liked your ideas or things that you do," and "who would you go to if a situation came up and you needed some advice." Those who named their own mother as a support person for at least one of the three emotional support questions were coded as <emph>1</emph> for the variable <emph>grandmother provides emotional support</emph>; those who did not were coded <emph>0</emph> for this variable.</p> <p>Mothers were administered the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>]), a 10-item self-report measure of global self-esteem originally developed for use with adolescents. Participants responded to statements such as "I feel I have a number of good qualities," using a 4-point scale ranging from <emph>strongly agree</emph> to <emph>strongly disagree</emph>. Responses are reverse-coded (as necessary) and summed. Scores range from 0 to 30, with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. Cronbach's alpha in this sample was.88, which is comparable to the scale author's reports of reliability.</p> <p>Mothers also completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale (Radloff, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref42">40</reflink>]), a 20-item self-report measure of depressive symptoms during the past week that has acceptable psychometrics for use in adolescent samples. Participants respond using a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 3 (<emph>a lot</emph>), and responses are summed, with higher scores indicating more depressive symptoms. The CES-D displayed very high internal reliability in this sample (α = .99).</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-8">MOTHER–FATHER RELATIONSHIP QUALITIES</hd> <p>Mothers indicated whether they were married, living together, dating, friends, or out of contact with the father, and romantic relationship status was coded <emph>1</emph> for those who were married to, living with, or dating the father. Mothers also answered, "how often does your baby's father treat you with respect?" using a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (<emph>not often</emph>) to 4 (<emph>very often</emph>). A binary variable of father shows respect was created, with scores of 1 (<emph>often/very often</emph>) and 0 (<emph>less than often</emph>). Relationship conflict was assessed by asking mothers, "how often do you and your baby's father argue with each other?" Mothers answered using the 4-point frequency scale, and responses were again dichotomized to create a binary variable, argues with father (1 = <emph>often or very often</emph>, 0 = <emph>less than often</emph>).</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-9">Analytic Strategy</hd> <p>First, chi-square and <emph>t</emph> tests were conducted to test for differences in the variables of interest (measured at baseline) between mothers who continued to participate in the study versus those who were lost to follow-up. Then, descriptive statistics were calculated for demographic characteristics, father involvement, father and family characteristics, and mother–father relationship qualities in the baseline sample. Baseline maternal factors associated with concurrent father involvement were explored using Pearson's chi-square tests for binary variables and Student's t-tests for continuous variables. To examine changes in father involvement over the study period, we obtained regression parameters via generalized estimating equations (GEE), adjusting the standard errors of the estimated regression parameters by taking into account the correlation observed within an individual's repeated measures (Diggle, Liang, & Zeger, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref43">14</reflink>]). For binary outcomes, GEE uses maximum likelihood estimation to generate adjusted odds ratios (AOR) in a manner similar to logistic regression. Multinomial logistic regression was then used to examine the baseline factors that predict patterns of father involvement over time.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-10">RESULTS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0063515582-11">Sample Attrition</hd> <p>Ninety eight (71%) of the 138 mothers participated in the 12-month follow-up and 82 (59%) in the 24-month follow-up. Mothers who participated in the 12-month follow-up were more likely to be in a romantic relationship with their child's father, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref44">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 137) = 5.66, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05, and had higher self-esteem scores at baseline, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib134" id="ref45">134</reflink>) = 2.56, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05, than those who did not complete the follow-up. There were no other significant differences between these two groups in any study variables and no differences in baseline father characteristics, family characteristics, mother–father relationship qualities or father involvement between those who participated in the 24-month follow-up and those who did not.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-12">Baseline Descriptive Statistics</hd> <p>At the time of the initial interview, the average age was 17.4 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 1.5) for mothers, 20.8 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 3.4) for fathers, and 3.4 months (<emph>SD</emph> = 3.6) for their children (see Table 1). The average age difference between mother-father pairs was 3 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 3.4). Almost one half (48%) of the children were male. At baseline, two thirds of the mothers (67%) were in school or had graduated from high school; 23% had other children besides the focal child; and 72% lived with their mothers or grandmothers. Most mothers (70%) reported receiving emotional support from their own mothers. Most (73%) of the fathers were in school or had completed high school; 45% were employed; and 29% were known by the mothers to have additional children.</p> <p>TABLE 1 Family Characteristics, Maternal Mental Health, and Mother–Father Relationship Qualities at Baseline</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Full sample (<italic>N</italic> = 138)</td><td>Low involvement (<italic>n</italic> = 74)</td><td>High involvement (<italic>n</italic> = 63)</td><td>Group comparison</td></tr><tr><td /><td><italic>M</italic> (<italic>SD</italic>)/%</td><td><italic>M</italic> (<italic>SD</italic>)/%</td><td><italic>M</italic> (<italic>SD</italic>)/%</td><td><italic>t</italic></td><td>Odds ratio</td><td><italic>p</italic> value</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Family characteristics</td></tr><tr><td> Child age</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.4 (3.6)</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.4 (3.0)</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.3 (4.3)</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.06</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">.95</td></tr><tr><td> Child gender (boy)</td><td>48</td><td>48</td><td>48</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">1.02</td><td char="." charoff="50">.96</td></tr><tr><td> Mother age</td><td char="." charoff="50">17.4 (1.5)</td><td char="." charoff="50">17.3 (1.6)</td><td char="." charoff="50">17.5 (1.4)</td><td char="." charoff="50">−0.65</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">.52</td></tr><tr><td> In school/graduated</td><td>67</td><td>70</td><td>63</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">0.72</td><td char="." charoff="50">.36</td></tr><tr><td> Mom has other children</td><td>23</td><td>23</td><td>24</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">1.05</td><td char="." charoff="50">.91</td></tr><tr><td> Lives with mother/grandmother</td><td>72</td><td>77</td><td>67</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">0.60</td><td char="." charoff="50">.18</td></tr><tr><td> Grandmother provides emotional support</td><td>70</td><td>65</td><td>76</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">1.73</td><td char="." charoff="50">.15</td></tr><tr><td> Father in school/graduated</td><td>73</td><td>70</td><td>76</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">1.38</td><td char="." charoff="50">.42</td></tr><tr><td> Father employed</td><td>45</td><td>40</td><td>51</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">1.55</td><td char="." charoff="50">.22</td></tr><tr><td> Father age</td><td char="." charoff="50">20.8 (3.4)</td><td char="." charoff="50">20.8 (3.0)</td><td char="." charoff="50">20.7 (3.9)</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.16</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">.87</td></tr><tr><td> Father has other children</td><td>29</td><td>42</td><td>15</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">0.24</td><td char="." charoff="50">.01</td></tr><tr><td> Mother–father age difference</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.0 (3.4)</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.0 (3.2)</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.0 (3.5)</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.08</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">.94</td></tr><tr><td>Maternal mental health</td></tr><tr><td> Mother self-esteem score</td><td char="." charoff="50">22.5 (4.9)</td><td char="." charoff="50">21.5 (4.6)</td><td char="." charoff="50">23.5 (4.9)</td><td char="." charoff="50">−2.48</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">.01</td></tr><tr><td> Mother depression score</td><td char="." charoff="50">17.4 (12.7)</td><td char="." charoff="50">20.3 (13.1)</td><td char="." charoff="50">14.2 (11.5)</td><td char="." charoff="50">2.75</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">.01</td></tr><tr><td>Relationship qualities</td></tr><tr><td> In romantic relationship with father</td><td>52</td><td>23</td><td>84</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">17.46</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001</td></tr><tr><td> Father shows respect (often/very often)</td><td>86</td><td>78</td><td>92</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">3.31</td><td char="." charoff="50">.03</td></tr><tr><td> Argue with father (often/very often)</td><td>24</td><td>37</td><td>13</td><td /><td char="." charoff="50">0.25</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.01</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>On average, mothers reported a level of depressive symptoms slightly above the clinical cutoff (<emph>M</emph> = 17.4, <emph>SD</emph> = 12.7), with 45% scoring in the clinical range at baseline. The mean self-esteem score for the sample at baseline was 22.5 (<emph>SD</emph> = 4.9, range = 9–30).</p> <p>Slightly more than one half (52%) of the mothers reported being in a romantic relationship with the father of their baby at baseline. Also at baseline, 86% of mothers said that their child's father showed them respect often or very often; 24% reported arguing with the father often or very often.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-13">Patterns of Father Involvement</hd> <p>Nearly one half (46%) of mothers reported high overall father involvement when their children were infants, with 53% reporting contact with the father several times per week, and 61% expecting the father to be engaged in at least four of six child care activities. The percentage of mothers who reported high father accessibility between baseline and 12-months follow-up and between baseline and 24-months follow-up significantly decreased (see Table 2). The percentage of mothers reporting high overall father involvement from baseline to 12-months follow-up also declined significantly. There was no significant change in the percentage of highly involved fathers from 12- to 24-months follow-up. These patterns suggest that a decrease in father accessibility and engagement is most likely to occur before children reach two years old (i.e., 12-months follow-up). Furthermore, very few fathers increase their involvement from low to high during infancy. Father involvement patterns between the treatment and control groups did not differ.</p> <p>TABLE 2 Patterns of Mother-Reported Father Involvement</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td> Prevalence</td><td>Change from baseline to 12 months</td><td>Change from baseline to 24 months</td><td>Change from 12 to 24 months</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Baseline (<italic>n</italic> = 138)</td><td>12 mo (<italic>n</italic> = 101)</td><td>24 mo (<italic>n</italic> = 90)</td><td>AOR</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>AOR</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>AOR</td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Father accessibility</td><td>53%</td><td>40%</td><td>46%</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.57</td><td char="." charoff="50"><.01</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.66</td><td char="." charoff="50">.05</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.15</td><td char="." charoff="50">.51</td></tr><tr><td>Father engagement</td><td>61%</td><td>57%</td><td>60%</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.70</td><td char="." charoff="50">.11</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.82</td><td char="." charoff="50">.39</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.16</td><td char="." charoff="50">.48</td></tr><tr><td>Overall involvement</td><td>46%</td><td>34%</td><td>40%</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.53</td><td char="." charoff="50"><.01</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.70</td><td char="." charoff="50">.09</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.33</td><td char="." charoff="50">.21</td></tr><tr><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0063515582-14">Predictors of Father Involvement Patterns</hd> <p>To better understand these significant declines in father involvement, we examined how father characteristics, family characteristics, and relationship qualities predicted initial father involvement and patterns of change in father involvement (high-high, low-low, high-low, low-high) between the baseline and 12-month data collection. Bivariate associations revealed that fathers who had additional children were more likely to be in the low involvement group at baseline (see Table 1). Mothers who reported high father involvement at baseline simultaneously reported higher self-esteem and lower levels of depressive symptoms than mothers who reported low father involvement. Mothers who were romantically involved with the father reported that father showed respect often; those who did not argue with the father often were more likely to report high father involvement than low father involvement at baseline.</p> <p>Table 3 shows bivariate associations between father characteristics, family characteristics, mother–father relationship qualities, and change in father involvement between baseline and 12-months follow-up. Fathers who had other children were more likely to be consistently low on father involvement. Mothers' self-esteem at baseline was associated with increased odds of father ever being highly involved (high-high or high-low) as opposed to being consistently low. On the other hand, mothers' depressive symptoms at baseline were associated with increased odds of father being consistently low on involvement as opposed to ever highly involved. The mother and father being romantically involved at baseline drastically increased the odds that the father was ever highly involved. Frequent arguments between the mother and father at baseline reduced the odds that the father was initially highly involved but decreased involvement compared. Finally, mothers who received emotional support from their own mothers at baseline were more likely to report fathers being consistently highly involved.</p> <p>TABLE 3 Bivariate Associations Between Baseline Predictors and Change in Mother-Reported Overall Father Involvement Across 12 Months</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Low-High vs. Low-Low </td><td>High-Low vs. Low-Low</td><td>High-High vs. Low-Low</td><td>Low-High vs. High-High</td><td>High-Low vs. High-High</td></tr><tr><td /><td>OR</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>OR</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>OR</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>OR</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>OR</td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Family characteristics</td></tr><tr><td> Child age</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.89</td><td char="." charoff="50">.48</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.95</td><td char="." charoff="50">.52</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.00</td><td char="." charoff="50">.99</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.89</td><td char="." charoff="50">.49</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.95</td><td char="." charoff="50">.54</td></tr><tr><td> Child gender (boy)</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.28</td><td char="." charoff="50">.27</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.92</td><td char="." charoff="50">.87</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.02</td><td char="." charoff="50">.98</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.27</td><td char="." charoff="50">.27</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.90</td><td char="." charoff="50">.86</td></tr><tr><td> Mother age</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.18</td><td char="." charoff="50">.61</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.08</td><td char="." charoff="50">.63</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.15</td><td char="." charoff="50">.37</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.02</td><td char="." charoff="50">.95</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.94</td><td char="." charoff="50">.74</td></tr><tr><td> In school/graduated</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.18</td><td char="." charoff="50">.08</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.53</td><td char="." charoff="50">.29</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.45</td><td char="." charoff="50">.14</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.39</td><td char="." charoff="50">.35</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.18</td><td char="." charoff="50">.79</td></tr><tr><td> Mom has other children</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.29</td><td char="." charoff="50">.83</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.81</td><td char="." charoff="50">.78</td><td char="." charoff="50">2.57</td><td char="." charoff="50">.10</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.50</td><td char="." charoff="50">.56</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.32</td><td char="." charoff="50">.12</td></tr><tr><td> Lives with mother/grandmother<sup>1</sup></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.41</td><td char="." charoff="50">.11</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.20</td><td char="." charoff="50">.75</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.34</td><td char="." charoff="50">.09</td></tr><tr><td> Grandmother provides emotional support</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.04</td><td char="." charoff="50">.95</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.41</td><td char="." charoff="50">.05</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td char="." charoff="50">.30</td><td char="." charoff="50">.09</td></tr><tr><td> Father in school/graduated</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.29</td><td char="." charoff="50">.21</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.48</td><td char="." charoff="50">.54</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.24</td><td char="." charoff="50">.71</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.23</td><td char="." charoff="50">.15</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.19</td><td char="." charoff="50">.80</td></tr><tr><td> Father employed</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.00</td><td char="." charoff="50">.26</td><td char="." charoff="50">2.00</td><td char="." charoff="50">.21</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.86</td><td char="." charoff="50">.24</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.62</td><td char="." charoff="50">.63</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.08</td><td char="." charoff="50">.90</td></tr><tr><td> Father age</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.05</td><td char="." charoff="50">.74</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.92</td><td char="." charoff="50">.36</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.05</td><td char="." charoff="50">.54</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.00</td><td char="." charoff="50">.99</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.88</td><td char="." charoff="50">.18</td></tr><tr><td> Father has other children</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.08</td><td char="." charoff="50">.94</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.89</td><td char="." charoff="50">.03</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.22</td><td char="." charoff="50">.04</td><td char="." charoff="50">5.00</td><td char="." charoff="50">.17</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.42</td><td char="." charoff="50">.47</td></tr><tr><td> Mother-father age difference</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.02</td><td char="." charoff="50">.90</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.95</td><td char="." charoff="50">.54</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.04</td><td char="." charoff="50">.62</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.98</td><td char="." charoff="50">.91</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.91</td><td char="." charoff="50">.33</td></tr><tr><td>Maternal mental health</td></tr><tr><td> Mother self-esteem score</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.15</td><td char="." charoff="50">.18</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.15</td><td char="." charoff="50">.02</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.12</td><td char="." charoff="50">.04</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.03</td><td char="." charoff="50">.78</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.03</td><td char="." charoff="50">.59</td></tr><tr><td> Mother depression score</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.94</td><td char="." charoff="50">.24</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.93</td><td char="." charoff="50">.01</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.95</td><td char="." charoff="50">.02</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.99</td><td char="." charoff="50">.89</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.98</td><td char="." charoff="50">.46</td></tr><tr><td>Relationship qualities</td></tr><tr><td> In romantic relationship with father</td><td char="." charoff="50">4.80</td><td char="." charoff="50">.11</td><td char="." charoff="50">20.27</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001</td><td char="." charoff="50">25.60</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.001</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.19</td><td char="." charoff="50">.13</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.79</td><td char="." charoff="50">.79</td></tr><tr><td> Father shows respect (often/very often)</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.39</td><td char="." charoff="50">.78</td><td char="." charoff="50">7.30</td><td char="." charoff="50">.07</td><td char="." charoff="50">4.35</td><td char="." charoff="50">.08</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.32</td><td char="." charoff="50">.39</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.68</td><td char="." charoff="50">.68</td></tr><tr><td> Argue with father (often/very often)</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.21</td><td char="." charoff="50">.84</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.18</td><td char="." charoff="50">.04</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.32</td><td char="." charoff="50">.08</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.83</td><td char="." charoff="50">.21</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.58</td><td char="." charoff="50">.55</td></tr><tr><td /></tr><tr><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>None of the examined father or family characteristics or mother–father relationship qualities significantly influenced the odds of mothers reporting consistently low or consistently high versus increasing involvement, probably due to the small number of participants in the latter group. Moreover, there were no significant predictors of father involvement dropping from high to low compared to remaining consistently high on involvement.</p> <p>To examine the independent effects of the father characteristics, family characteristics, and mother–father relationship qualities that were significantly (<emph>p</emph> < 0.05) associated with patterns of father involvement at the bivariate level, multivariate logistic regression models were conducted comparing high-low versus low-low, high-high versus low-low, and high-low versus high-high patterns of involvement. Although father having other children was significant at the bivariate level, 38% of participants were missing data for this variable because the mothers did not know whether the father had other children. Thus, it was excluded from multivariate models.</p> <p>Mothers with fewer depressive symptoms at baseline were more likely to report initially high but declining father involvement than to report continually low involvement (see Table 4). Mothers in romantic relationships with their child's father at baseline were more likely to report either initially or consistently high father involvement versus continually low involvement. Once again, at the multivariate level there were no significant predictors of the likelihood of initially high but declining father involvement versus consistently high involvement.</p> <p>TABLE 4 Predicting Change in Mother-Reported Overall Father Involvement Across 12 Months</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>High-Low vs. Low-Low</td><td>High-High vs. Low-Low</td><td>High-Low vs. High-High</td></tr><tr><td /><td>AOR (RRR)</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>AOR (RRR)</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>AOR (RRR)</td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Family characteristics</td></tr><tr><td> Grandmother provides emotional support</td><td char="." charoff="50">1.02</td><td char="." charoff="50">.98</td><td char="." charoff="50">3.66</td><td char="." charoff="50">.10</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.28</td><td char="." charoff="50">.08</td></tr><tr><td>Maternal mental health</td></tr><tr><td> Mother self-esteem score</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.94</td><td char="." charoff="50">.54</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.96</td><td char="." charoff="50">.64</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.99</td><td char="." charoff="50">.86</td></tr><tr><td> Mother depression score</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.92</td><td char="." charoff="50">.03</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.95</td><td char="." charoff="50">.17</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.96</td><td char="." charoff="50">.30</td></tr><tr><td>Relationship qualities</td></tr><tr><td> In romantic relationship with father</td><td char="." charoff="50">11.63</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.01</td><td char="." charoff="50">14.30</td><td char="." charoff="50"><0.01</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.81</td><td char="." charoff="50">.82</td></tr><tr><td> Argue with father (often/very often)</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.30</td><td char="." charoff="50">.23</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.57</td><td char="." charoff="50">.54</td><td char="." charoff="50">0.52</td><td char="." charoff="50">.50</td></tr><tr><td /></tr><tr><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0063515582-15">DISCUSSION</hd> <p>The current study found that, though nearly one half of the adolescent mothers in the sample reported high father involvement when their children were infants, this percentage decreased significantly over the following year as children entered toddlerhood. The categorization of mother-reported father involvement stabilized by the time children were approximately 2 years old. These patterns of father involvement are similar to those reported by mothers in other studies of low-income families. Coley and Chase-Lansdale ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref46">8</reflink>]) found that 52% of young African American mothers reported the fathers of their infants were highly involved at birth, but the percentage decreased to 46% playing an active caretaking role when their child was 6 months old and 47% at 12 months of age. In a racially mixed sample of teenage mothers living in a midwestern state and receiving welfare, Kalil and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref47">28</reflink>]) found that 63% of fathers were categorized as highly involved at baseline, when children were on average 1 year old. This percentage decreased to one third a year later. Consistent with prior research, the current study suggests that the number of highly involved fathers of children born to low-income, minority, adolescent mothers declines during the course of their children's infancy and toddlerhood. This finding highlights the need for early intervention to prevent a decline in father involvement, which can have negative implications for the already at-risk children born to young, low-income mothers (Howard et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref48">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>In examining correlates of static levels of father involvement at baseline, the fathers who mothers reported were highly involved were less likely to have other children; partnered with mothers who had higher self-esteem and fewer depressive symptoms; were more likely to be romantically involved with the mother, show her respect often, and rarely argue with her when compared to fathers who were less involved. These same family characteristics and mother–father relationship qualities also significantly differentiated fathers who consistently fell into the low-involvement category from those who were consistently highly involved and from those whose involvement was initially high but declined over the course of the year. The multivariate analyses indicated that parents' being in a romantic relationship at baseline independently predicted initially high involvement, declining and continuing, versus consistently low father involvement; and mothers' depressive symptoms at baseline uniquely predicted consistently low father involvement as compared to initially high but declining involvement.</p> <p>This finding, that when fathers are romantically involved with mothers in their child's early months, they are perceived by the mothers to be more accessible and more engaged with their children, is consistent with previous findings (e.g., Gee et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref49">21</reflink>]; Kalil et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref50">28</reflink>]). In a nationally representative sample of families who qualified for Early Head Start services, nonresident fathers who maintained romantic relationships with their children's mothers were significantly more involved with their toddlers over time than nonresident fathers whose romantic relationships dissolved (Cabrera et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref51">3</reflink>]). Moreover, romantic relationship status accounts for more variance in nonresident father involvement than parents' race/ethnicity or financial capital (Cabrera, Ryan, Mitchell, Shannon, & Tamis-LeMonda, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref52">4</reflink>]). In a national sample of unmarried parents, Carlson and McLanahan ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref53">6</reflink>]) also found that the romantic status of parents' relationship at the time of their child's birth was the strongest concurrent predictor of several forms of father involvement. Our findings add to this previous literature and suggest that interventions that seek to enhance fathers' involvement may be more effective when they also address the quality of adolescent mothers' relationships, romantic or otherwise, with their children's fathers (Fagan, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref54">5</reflink>]).</p> <p>In the current study, mothers who had lower levels of depressive symptoms at baseline were more likely to report initially high but declining father involvement versus consistently low involvement. Two explanations for this finding are possible: frequent contact and support from their child's father may alleviate or buffer mothers' concurrent depressive symptoms, or mothers who are less depressed may be more likely than depressed mothers to develop romantic relationships with partners who are involved and supportive.</p> <p>In the current sample of adolescent, mostly African American mothers, few baseline father characteristics, family characteristics, or qualities of mother–father relationships distinguished fathers whose involvement increased from those whose involvement decreased or was consistently low. The inability to statistically differentiate fathers whose involvement increased from those with other patterns of involvement was due to the drastically low number in the increasing group (<emph>n</emph> = 5). The low number of mothers who report increases in father involvement was expected based on previous related research (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref55">8</reflink>]; Kalil et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref56">28</reflink>]) and highlights the challenge of encouraging fathers to become involved with their children when they have yet to establish such a relationship.</p> <p>The lack of statistical differences between fathers whose involvement decreased and fathers who were highly involved throughout the course of the year is more perplexing, particularly because intervention/prevention programs would likely be aimed at the former group. It may be that those baseline predictor variables examined in the current study do not differentiate these two groups, which were both highly involved at baseline, but that other predictor variables not examined here might. Also, changes in the predictor variables during the intervening 12 months could explain the disparate patterns of subsequent involvement. For example, change in the parents' romantic relationship status does distinguish between sustained high involvement and high but declining father involvement. Two thirds of the mothers reporting declining involvement broke up with the baby's father during the 12 month interval. In contrast, only 15% of those mothers reporting sustained high involvement reported breaking up during that time. A more detailed analysis of the relationship between changes in predictor variables and changes in involvement is an important direction for future research.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-16">Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>The small sample size precluded more detailed analyses and limits the generalizability of the results. Given potential differences in social and cultural norms related to fathering roles, findings from this relatively homogenous sample of low-income, urban, mostly African American, adolescent mothers are not expected to generalize to other socioeconomic, cultural, or racial/ethnic groups or seemingly similar families living in different geographic areas.</p> <p>In addition, data presented here were collected only from mothers and thus, represent only one perspective on father involvement. As other studies have indicated, fathers' perceptions of contact and involvement, particularly those of nonresident fathers, may differ substantially from mother reports (Coley & Morris, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref57">11</reflink>]). Because the measure of father engagement is based on mothers' projection or prediction of future behavior, it is similarly influenced by mother's perceptions. However, mothers' and fathers' perceptions of father involvement have been shown to have equivalent predictive validity with regard to young children's cognitive and behavioral development (Hernandez & Coley, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref58">24</reflink>]), which mitigates the drawbacks (e.g., shared error variance) to using only maternal report. Nonetheless, the reliability and meaningfulness of future research in this area would be significantly strengthened by including father report.</p> <p>Future research on father involvement in adolescent mother-headed families could also shed more light on the most effective intervention points by collecting data at shorter intervals across a longer period of time. Although the current study draws attention to the change in father involvement during infancy, there is a growing body of evidence that prenatal involvement provides an essential foundation for continued father involvement, at least through children's 3rd year of life (Cabrera, Fagan, & Farrie, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref59">4</reflink>]). However, findings from the current study suggest that interventions that focus on the couple and/or coparenting relationship only prenatally may be inadequate. Instead, interventions that support positive coparenting relationships between young parents should continue to provide support throughout the infant and toddler period.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-17">CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS</hd> <p>The current study contributes additional information about the important but understudied contexts of father involvement within adolescent mother-headed families. The significant declines found in mother-reported father involvement, particularly during the first study year, emphasize the importance of fathers being involved early to sustain their involvement throughout toddlerhood and into preschool age, when the novelty of the newborn phase wears off and the demands of child rearing change. Although the implications of maternal depression for child development have been well documented (Johnson, 2001; Marchand & Hock, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref60">35</reflink>]), maternal depression may also have implications for the relationship between adolescent mothers and their partners (Krishnakumar & Black, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref61">30</reflink>]), and, as the current findings suggest, for father involvement. Finally, these findings highlight the importance of the type of relationship between adolescent parents and point to a potential avenue for increasing early father involvement—supporting positive co-parenting relationships between adolescent mothers and the fathers of their children, even once they are no longer romantically involved.</p> <hd id="AN0063515582-18">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>This project was supported by a grant from the Office of Adolescent Pregnancy Programs, Office of Population Affairs, Department of Health and Human Services (APH PA 006026), and the DC-Baltimore Research Center on Child Health Disparities (P20 MD00165). Additional support was received from the Center for Clinical and Community Research at Children's National Medical Center. The contents of this manuscript are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the funding agencies. The funders did not have a role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; nor preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript.</p> <ref id="AN0063515582-19"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref9" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Black, M. M., Dubowitz, H., & Starr, Jr., R. H. (1999). African American fathers in low income, urban families: Development, behavior, and home environment of their three-year-old children. Child Development, 70(4), 967–978.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref28" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Cabrera, N., Fitzgerald, H. E., Bradley, R. H., & Roggman, L. (2007). Modeling the dynamics of paternal influences on children over the life course. 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AOR = adjusted odds ratio; RRR = relative risk ratio.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Low-Low (<emph>n</emph> = 24); High-Low (<emph>n</emph> = 21); High-High (<emph>n</emph> = 24).</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Amy Lewin; StephanieJ. Mitchell; Lori Burrell; LeeS. A. Beers and AnneK. Duggan</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib134" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref60"></nolink>
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  Data: Patterns and Predictors of Involvement among Fathers of Children Born to Adolescent Mothers
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lewin%2C+Amy%22">Lewin, Amy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mitchell%2C+Stephanie+J%2E%22">Mitchell, Stephanie J.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Burrell%2C+Lori%22">Burrell, Lori</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Family+Social+Work%22"><i>Journal of Family Social Work</i></searchLink>. 2011 14(4):335-353.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: 19
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  Data: 2011
– Name: TypeDocument
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mothers%22">Mothers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Fathers%22">Fathers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Child+Relationship%22">Parent Child Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Participation%22">Parent Participation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Early+Parenthood%22">Early Parenthood</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predictor+Variables%22">Predictor Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Urban+Areas%22">Urban Areas</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22African+Americans%22">African Americans</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interviews%22">Interviews</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intimacy%22">Intimacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Relationship%22">Interpersonal Relationship</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1080/10522158.2011.587178
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  Data: 1052-2158
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Father involvement may be an important support for children born to adolescent mothers. This study examines patterns and predictors of father involvement, as reported by adolescent mothers, from their child's infancy through toddlerhood. Data were collected from urban, primarily African American, adolescent mothers (N = 138) in four interviews, over a 24-month period. The percentage of fathers categorized as "highly involved" decreased significantly from baseline to 12-month follow-up and was stable through 24 months. The romantic status of the mother-father relationship was the strongest predictor of whether father involvement was consistently high, consistently low, or decreased over time. (Contains 4 tables.)
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        PageCount: 19
        StartPage: 335
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      – SubjectFull: Mothers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Fathers
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      – SubjectFull: Parent Child Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Participation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Parenthood
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
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      – SubjectFull: Predictor Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Urban Areas
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: African Americans
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      – SubjectFull: Intimacy
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      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Relationship
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      – TitleFull: Patterns and Predictors of Involvement among Fathers of Children Born to Adolescent Mothers
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