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The Gap between Influence and Efficacy: College Readiness Training, Urban School Counselors, and the Promotion of Equity

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Title: The Gap between Influence and Efficacy: College Readiness Training, Urban School Counselors, and the Promotion of Equity
Language: English
Authors: Savitz-Romer, Mandy
Source: Counselor Education and Supervision. Jun 2012 51(2):98-111.
Availability: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
Peer Reviewed: Y
Physical Description: PDF
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2012
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: School Counselors, High Schools, Urban Schools, College Readiness, College Bound Students, Low Income Groups, Counselor Role, Access to Education, Counselor Attitudes, Counselor Training, Educational Attitudes, Interviews
DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6978.2012.00007.x
ISSN: 0011-0035
Abstract: This phenomenological study presents 11 urban school counselors' perceptions of their graduate education in school counseling in relation to their engagement in college readiness counseling with low-income, 1st-generation college-bound students. Findings from 2 rounds of interviews suggest that intentional strategies to integrate postsecondary readiness and planning into counselor education curricula is necessary to efficiently prepare school counselors to promote college access and success for at-risk youth, thereby reducing the inequities that currently exist in postsecondary degree attainment.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 34
Entry Date: 2012
Accession Number: EJ975361
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0076402444;cev01jun.12;2019May30.12:40;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0076402444-1">The Gap Between Influence and Efficacy: College Readiness Training, Urban School Counselors, and the Promotion of Equity. </title> <p>This phenomenological study presents 11 urban school counselors' perceptions of their graduate education in school counseling in relation to their engagement in college readiness counseling with low‐income, 1st‐generation college‐bound students. Findings from 2 rounds of interviews suggest that intentional strategies to integrate postsecondary readiness and planning into counselor education curricula is necessary to efficiently prepare school counselors to promote college access and success for at‐risk youth, thereby reducing the inequities that currently exist in postsecondary degree attainment.</p> <p>Keywords: school counselors; college readiness counseling; college admissions counseling; counselor education</p> <p>Growing inequities in postsecondary degree attainment and increased attention to the importance of a college degree have raised red flags about the quality of college readiness counseling available to high school students, particularly those who are from low‐income families, are first‐generation college attendees, or are students from underrepresented minority groups ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref1">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref2">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref3">29</reflink>]). School counselors provide an important form of social capital when these students engage in postsecondary counseling, especially when they set high educational expectations, share institutional resources and information, and engage students in thinking about and planning for their future ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref4">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref5">21</reflink>]). Students attending urban schools often lack college knowledge, possess low postsecondary aspirations due to perceived academic or financial barriers, and may not have access to social networks to assist with their planning ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref6">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref7">14</reflink>]). Research has found that urban students rely heavily on their school counselors for postsecondary counseling and support, specifically because their access to postsecondary knowledge and networks is limited ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref9">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref10">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref11">32</reflink>]). Thus, school counselors working in urban communities are uniquely positioned to promote educational equity by ensuring that their students have access to high‐quality college readiness counseling. Yet, some research cites school counselors as part of the problem ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref12">29</reflink>]) rather than part of the solution.</p> <p>College readiness counseling is a developmental process that engages young people in developing postsecondary aspirations and expectations, gaining awareness of one's interests and abilities, and receiving support and information for college access and success. Many terms have been used to describe the postsecondary counseling process, including <emph>college counseling</emph>, <emph>college admissions counseling</emph>, and <emph>college readiness counseling</emph>. This article uses the term <emph>college readiness counseling</emph> because of its suggestion that "readiness" includes preparation for success upon matriculation. Effective college readiness counseling requires a strong foundation in counseling, developed through graduate course and field‐based training. This includes a general, if not specific, knowledge of postsecondary education history, college choice theories and policies, aspiration formation, and barriers to postsecondary enrollment and persistence. However, graduate programs in counselor education rarely include course work in college readiness counseling, favoring instead clinical training and content areas such as vocational development and psychological testing ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref13">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref14">22</reflink>]).</p> <p>Efforts to improve the postsecondary success of students call for professional school counselors to promote equity and opportunity through college readiness, enrollment, and degree attainment. Counselor education programs play a key role in preparing future school counselors to provide effective college readiness counseling to all students, especially those underrepresented in higher education. The researcher presents findings from research conducted on the college readiness counseling experiences of urban high school counselors and their perceptions about their preparation for this aspect of their work. These findings may provide insight into the preservice training of school counselors, particularly those who seek to work in low‐income communities. Finally, the researcher presents recommendations for integrating college readiness counseling into counselor education curriculum to ensure that future counselors are equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to foster equity and opportunity for all students.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-2">School Counselors' Role in College Readiness Counseling</hd> <p>There is a gap in college enrollment and attainment between Caucasian students and underrepresented minority students, between students from high‐income families and those from low‐income families, and between students whose parents completed education beyond high school and those whose parents did not ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref15">3</reflink>]). These gaps are especially troubling in light of the individual and societal benefits accrued through increased degree enrollment and attainment ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref16">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref17">4</reflink>]). Widespread concern for these gaps have prompted research that points to a variety of factors that influence postsecondary enrollment and degree attainment, including academic readiness, financial support, high educational aspirations, and access to information‐rich networks ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref18">33</reflink>]). In addition to the aforementioned factors, research also speaks to the importance of students' access to high‐quality college readiness counseling ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref19">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref20">30</reflink>]).</p> <p>Serious inequities in educational systems' college readiness counseling too often result in some students having differential access to academically rigorous courses ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref21">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref22">32</reflink>]), high educational aspirations and expectations ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref23">30</reflink>]), and possession of what is commonly referred to as "college knowledge" ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref24">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref25">9</reflink>]). According to [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref26">21</reflink>], those schools deemed most likely to have inadequate counseling are generally located in communities and schools serving students of color and first‐generation college attendees. For example, research shows that urban students lack basic college planning information, begin to plan for college too late, and do not take the requisite courses ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref27">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref28">24</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref29">26</reflink>]). Moreover, some researchers have found that, despite holding high educational aspirations, urban students are apathetic about the college planning process ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref30">4</reflink>]) and subsequently make postsecondary choices haphazardly and with little support ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref31">24</reflink>]). These findings may be partially explained by research suggesting that hopelessness, especially as it pertains to their future identities, is common among low‐income and minority youth and further deters students from actively engaging in college planning and decision‐making behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref32">6</reflink>]).</p> <p>School counselors working in settings with high proportions of first‐generation, low‐income, and underrepresented minority students have the potential to act as a key source of social capital to promote participation in postsecondary education, reinforcing the need for highly qualified and trained counselors ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref33">14</reflink>]). College readiness counseling is embedded in the developmental process of career development, a role charged to school counselors for decades as part of their supporting students' academic, personal, and career development. It is reported that school counselors spend between 25% and 50% of their time engaged in college admissions counseling ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref34">23</reflink>]). However, the postsecondary outcomes of students in urban communities are small in comparison with those seen in middle and higher income communities, where students have the option of receiving support from multiple networks, family members and peers who have attended college, private college counseling services, less overburdened school counselors, and/or dedicated college counselors.</p> <p>Concerns about poor college readiness counseling in low‐income schools typically label school counselors as central to the problem, citing high student–counselor ratios, few college planning resources, and an overemphasis on administrative duties ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref35">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref36">29</reflink>]). However, other studies indicate that students of color, first‐generation college‐bound students, and low‐income students rely heavily on their school counselors for providing high postsecondary expectations and college planning support ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref37">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref38">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref39">24</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref40">32</reflink>]). The difference in these studies suggests that there may be other mechanisms that undermine college readiness counseling in urban communities.</p> <p>Counselor education researchers have examined the alignment between graduate training and career expectations of school counselors ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref42">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref43">27</reflink>]). However, research has not examined school counselors' specific experiences with college readiness counseling and their perceived preparation for this dimension of practice. According to [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref44">22</reflink>], fewer than 30 counselor education programs offer a course in college readiness counseling that offers school counseling credit, a small number compared with the 466 programs listed by the American School Counselor Association. This may be partially explained by the fact that there are no states that require course work or competencies in college readiness counseling for secondary school counselor licensure. The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) includes career development as one of eight common core curricular areas and requires CACREP‐accredited programs to include opportunities for students to learn "how to design, implement, manage, and evaluate transition programs, including school‐to‐work, postsecondary planning, and college admissions counseling" ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref45">11</reflink>], p. 41). However, this does not impose specific curricular requirements in college readiness counseling.</p> <p>To date, research has not examined school counselors' perceptions of their preparation for college readiness counseling. This study provides an account of urban high school counselors' perceptions of their role in college readiness counseling and the degree to which they believed their graduate training prepared them for this responsibility. The specific research questions of this study were as follows:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <emph>Research Question 1:</emph> How do urban high school counselors perceive their ability to influence college access for their students?</item> <p></p> <item> <emph>Research Question 2:</emph> How do urban school counselors make meaning out of their practice as college readiness counselors?</item> <p></p> <item> <emph>Research Question 3:</emph> How do urban school counselors view their preparation for their role as college readiness counselors?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0076402444-3">Method</hd> <p>A phenomenological tradition was used to provide a full account of urban high school counselors' perceptions of their role as college counselors promoting college access and success. Given the dearth of literature on urban school counselors and their perceptions of the graduate experience relative to college planning, a qualitative approach was especially conducive to gathering in‐depth and detailed information ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref46">25</reflink>]). Phenomenology allows for an understanding of a particular phenomenon through the individual's own frame of reference and lived experience. Phenomenological methods are effective at locating areas for improvement to practice by challenging normative assumptions as experienced by those directly involved ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref47">12</reflink>]). In this case, school counselors' inability to support college planning is an assumption that is challenged by phenomenological methods used in the study. As the study bears out, the assumption is a consequence of the effects of large caseloads and administrative duties that negatively affect counselor performance ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref48">29</reflink>]). The lived experience of counselors is brought into relief by phenomenological methods, thereby contesting the assumption.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-4">Procedure</hd> <p>Using a two‐part qualitative interview research design, the present study gathered in‐depth data, while also allowing multiple participants and schools to be represented ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref49">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref50">31</reflink>]). Data collection included two rounds of semistructured interviews with 11 participants, with member checks between interviews, totaling 22 interviews. The first round of semistructured interviews gathered specific experiences, opinions, and examples, followed by a second phase of interviews soliciting participants' beliefs and philosophies about their experience. Each interview was recorded on audiotape, coded, and analyzed using HyperRESEARCH ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref51">17</reflink>]) qualitative research software. Data analysis consisted of first engaging in "horizontalization," that is, locating nonrepetitive themes ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref52">16</reflink>]). There was strong consistency across all participant responses, and the researcher (the author) found little variation in counselor experience. Data were subsequently reviewed to identify the common experiences, perspectives, and meaning counselors made of their role and preparation for their responsibilities as an urban counselor ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref53">34</reflink>]). This process of forming a textural description provided the basis from which meaning units were made and the data were organized.</p> <p>A notable challenge to phenomenological methods is the potential for the researcher to influence the study's design and analysis by not carefully bracketing one's own experience from the phenomenon being studied ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref54">16</reflink>]). Several steps were taken to ensure the researcher's beliefs and experiences as a counselor educator and former urban school counselor did not enter into the study. First, to reduce the possibility of drawing inferences or meaning out of participant responses, the researcher used clarifying questions in all interviews and sent follow‐up summative memos to participants after each round of interviews for member checking, that is, the challenging of misinterpretation of the data. In addition, selected cases were recoded by a second researcher (a doctoral student at the university) to allow for differences in interpretation and analysis.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-5">Participants</hd> <p>Beginning with a purposive sampling design, participants were selected using a two‐tiered sampling process—school district sampling followed by counselor sampling. Three urban school districts were identified based on geographic location (urban high schools located in high‐poverty areas) and socioeconomic status of students (at least 50% student eligibility for free or reduced‐fare lunch), both of which increased the likelihood that participants had experience counseling students of color, low‐income students, and first‐generation college students. Participants were then recruited from these three districts. More specifically, urban school counselors who had been practicing for at least 3 years and were involved in the college admissions counseling process were invited to participate. This two‐tiered sampling process yielded 11 urban high school counselors representing two districts and five high schools. The first district, which serves approximately 22,276 students in Grades Pre‐K–12, reported that 77% of the students in this school district were eligible for the subsidized lunch program during the year of data collection. With regard to enrolled students' racial/ethnic backgrounds, 52% were Hispanic, 23% Black or African American, 15% Caucasian, 9% Asian/Pacific Islander, and 1% Native American. The second school district represented in this study reported approximately 24,500 students in Grades Pre‐K–12. Sixty percent of the students in this district were eligible for the subsidized lunch program. Students' racial/ethnic backgrounds were as follows: 52.9% Hispanic, 40.2% African American, 5.8% Caucasian, 1.0% Asian American, and 0.1% American Indian. All of the participants were women, and, with the exception of one Cape Verdean counselor and one Latina counselor, the other nine counselors were Caucasian. The counselors' degree of experience ranged from 3 to 32 years and represented work in the Northeast region of the country.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-6">Results</hd> <p>The findings are grouped into three themes according to the three research questions: complex college readiness counseling, interpretation of the role, and unpreparedness. Each of these themes is discussed in detail as follows, and, where applicable, quotes are included to capture school counselors' voices.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-7">Complex College Readiness Planning</hd> <p>The participants in this study believed their college readiness counseling efforts were intense and complex processes shaped by individual, familial, school, and community risk factors influencing students' personal development. Participants described students' academic and personal experiences as complicating the college readiness counseling process and, as such, believed that it was absolutely necessary to provide postsecondary planning and support as part of a larger developmental process. Data describing the complexity of college readiness counseling were divided into two categories: student and family issues. With regard to the first category, student issues, four subthemes were identified regarding participants' experience with college readiness counseling: (a) students' low and misinformed expectations, (b) students' lack of college knowledge, (c) student apathy, and (d) compounding personal issues.</p> <p> <emph>Students' low and misinformed expectations</emph>. The most common concern among participants was that low postsecondary expectations, unrealistic professional aspirations, and a lack of accurate information about educational requirements influenced their everyday work. Participants reported that "even though you tell them [the students] they can go to college, they don't believe you" or "they don't think they're smart enough." As a result, participants described focusing their efforts on "talking them into going to college,""pushing them to realize their own potential," or talking in detailed steps about goals that students "just throw out there."</p> <p> <emph>Students' lack of college knowledge</emph>. This second subtheme refers to a gap in what students know about postsecondary education, including the benefits, actual (tuition and other fees) and opportunity costs (salary lost by not entering the workforce or loss of time away from family), and culture and realities of attending college. Participants described students who lacked "college knowledge," which hindered students' postsecondary development, and called on participants to describe the basics of postsecondary education. These "basics" were "expanding their ideas of what opportunities exist,""teaching them about college," explaining which "requirements are necessary to be accepted" to college, detailing how to sign up for an admissions test, and explaining basic issues such as what to bring to college. These issues include the sorts of things that, according to the participants, "suburban kids get at home or already know."</p> <p> <emph>Student apathy</emph>. All participants reported that their students' actions suggest limited motivation to pursue higher education. Participants interpreted low motivation as students' inability to follow up on tasks necessary for college, a lack of focused goals, and a disregard for deadlines. For instance, participants described students who "yes you to death" but never follow through with the appropriate steps. As a consequence, participants described going over the same forms and processes with students multiple times, "chasing after" students to help them complete appropriate paperwork, and subsequently finding a gap between students' aspirations and their actual behaviors. Although participants recognized that student apathy is inextricably bound to the other topics cited in this study, counselors perceived this as compounding the other complexities of the college planning process. For example, student apathy was partially explained by students' lack of college knowledge and the related goals of higher education, which seem "nebulous" to students. As a result, participants interpreted their counseling role as countering years of low educational expectations set for students and huge gaps in their college knowledge with the intention of getting students interested in future planning.</p> <p> <emph>Compounding personal issues</emph>. The final subtheme in the student issues category captures participants' reactions to the ecological factors shaping postsecondary planning and counseling. High levels of stress, experience with trauma, religious issues, family responsibilities, nontraditional residential experiences, and environmental risk factors individually and collectively shaped students' personal and academic experiences and, consequently, their college planning process. Participants agreed that for students, "getting through the day was hard enough," and they believed that "shoving college down their throats" was inappropriate. Although some of these personal issues did not preclude participants from addressing postsecondary education planning, it often shaped the process in a significant way. For example, students who live on their own, reside in shelters, are in the custody of social services, have their own children, or do not possess legal documentation all require specific consideration and care when discussing postsecondary education.</p> <p>The second category reflects participants' attribution of a complex planning process to family issues. Participants reported that families lacked the capacity and networks to promote students' postsecondary aspirations and development and, in some rare cases, described instances when parents or family members' actions thwarted students' postsecondary development. With regard to this second category, family issues, findings were coded into three subthemes: (a) limited college knowledge and experience, (b) heightened financial concerns, and (c) inconsistent family support and encouragement.</p> <p> <emph>Limited college knowledge and experience</emph>. This first subtheme in the family issues category depicts participants' beliefs that the intensity of college readiness counseling was partially attributed to families' limited experience with postsecondary education; thus, families were not well positioned to help their children navigate the college planning process, nor were they necessarily aware of their own important role in forming and supporting aspirations and plans. Participants described compensation for the expectations through tacit knowledge and support "suburban kids get at home and in their community." This affected each of the developmental stages of college readiness counseling, including students' aspirations to attend, consideration of potential choices, and decision making regarding final choices. As a result, participants described "working with the families as well as the kids, because they are learning right along with the student about the whole process." However, participants did not always believe they were successful in this regard because of "trust issues" borne of unfamiliarity with the experience of going to college, and limited parental involvement in general, which restricted opportunities to build such trust.</p> <p> <emph>Heightened financial concerns</emph>. This second subtheme conveys the economic realities of students from low‐income communities; namely, financial concerns further complicate the ways in which families support the college planning process. First, general economic hardships "put pressure on students to work" during school, thereby limiting their availability for precollege preparation and tutoring programs. Second, perceptions about mounting college costs, availability of financial aid, and inexperience with the process of applying for financial aid fueled parental convictions that they could not afford college and, in rare cases, pushed students to seek employment following graduation rather than a college education. These experiences suggested to participants that they had to understand the economic lens through which student and family aspirations and plans were developed.</p> <p> <emph>Inconsistent family support and encouragement</emph>. The third subtheme summarizes participants' comments describing family members who were sometimes unsupportive of their students' college aspirations and planning needs. Reluctance to share financial documents, contentious divorce agreements, religious or cultural opposition to college attendance, and cultural expectations describe some of the factors that shaped the level of parental support and involvement. Participants described feeling like they were "pushing" for those "kids who really wanted to go to school"; nonetheless, participants' frustration mounted as they watched "highly motivated kids kind of floundering around because of their parents." In participants' view, the parents wanted to support their students, but unfamiliarity with the process, overwhelming job responsibilities, and language barriers challenged their involvement in the college planning process. Stories of parents' inability or refusal to meet deadlines or provide necessary documentation fueled participants' beliefs that the participants were working alone, further expanding their role and influence in this process.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-8">Interpretation of the Role</hd> <p>The second research question of how urban counselors made meaning out of their experience revealed specific practices that emerged as a consequence of the complex nature of college readiness counseling. The following three subthemes describe participants' responses: (a) expanded degree of influence, (b) potential to be enabling, and (c) concern for college success.</p> <p> <emph>Expanded degree of influence</emph>. Respondents perceived themselves as having an expanded degree of influence over students' postsecondary planning and decision making, specifically in response to students' lack of confidence and their family's inexperience with the process. Participants felt "pressure" and an "overwhelming responsibility" to best serve their students. This increased participants' anxiety about how to best counsel students and about what information or guidance they should provide. Many participants wished for "better information about which schools were good" or "doing a good job" with their kids. Their expanded degree of influence brought about positive results when students, who otherwise would not consider applying to college, did so because their "counselor told them to." Feeling caught between being "too influential" and "not providing students the intensive support and direction they needed" left participants wishing for better strategies for working with students to set future goals. There was genuine apprehension among all participants about being perceived as the "counselor who told me [the student] I couldn't go to college."</p> <p> <emph>Potential to be enabling</emph>. Participants, who made efforts to overcompensate for the absence of college knowledge and family supports, often believed they were enabling students by "coddling" or "hand‐holding" students in ways that potentially set them up for failure at the postsecondary level. In addition, participants reported taking on tasks that exceeded their role out of concern that they "can't count on students getting the encouragement at home or taking the initiative to address their needs." At the same time, participants expressed concern that if they failed to provide this form of assistance, they would fall short of meeting their students' needs.</p> <p> <emph>Concern for college success</emph>. Participants described a personal stake in their students' futures and thus a personal responsibility for the outcomes of their college readiness counseling efforts, namely, student success in college. In light of students' lack of college knowledge, limited academic and language skills, and limited family support, participants believed their practices were clouded by a concern for students' future prospects in college. This final concern about the outcomes of their professional practice was the most emotional issue described by the participants. Participants shared anxieties about the long‐term outcomes of their college readiness counseling, described as "dangerous" or "feeling badly about pushing a kid into a situation" that leaves the student "owing a ton of money" or "leading them to the underground economy" if the students were not successful in postsecondary education. Participants wished for feedback on students' postsecondary performance as a strategy to improve their own practice, inform curriculum decisions, and better understand the leaks in the K–16 pipeline.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-9">Underpreparedness</hd> <p>The final research question pertaining to counselors' perceptions of their graduate training for their role as college counselors revealed dissatisfaction with graduate training in college readiness counseling, thereby exacerbating an already complex process. Participants described graduate preparation that provided them with the counseling skills and techniques for individual and group counseling but did not train them for roles as college counselors. With regard to preparation for their role, participants' comments were coded into three subthemes: (a) overemphasis on clinical counseling, (b) absence of educational context, and (c) nonexistent college readiness counseling course work.</p> <p> <emph>Overemphasis on clinical counseling</emph>. Participants described graduate training programs that emphasized clinical counseling, thereby leaving little space for "issues germane to public education" or "urban students." Participants were "grateful for the strong foundation in counseling skills"; however, they experienced gaps in specific content areas. Beyond courses in multicultural counseling, counselors wished there was more preparation for the "issues facing urban students," the "inner‐city child," or "motivation." Many of the participants described feeling unprepared for the realities of working with students facing a set of complex issues in the context of college readiness counseling.</p> <p> <emph>Absence of educational context</emph>. Participants perceived their graduate training as missing the educational framework that guides their daily interactions in schools. Participants described graduate courses that neglected the contextual importance of working in public education, and, as a result, they felt unprepared to address the kinds of issues that complicated the college planning process. Participants largely felt unprepared to apply developed counseling skills in the school environment because courses were taught within a clinical framework that paid little attention to "urban schools." As one participant described her graduate training, there was "nothing about the English language learner, the high dropout rate, [or] the changing picture of the American high school." Similar sentiments were expressed about the lack of attention to how to use counseling as a strategy to foster educational engagement, school identification, or postsecondary aspirations and expectations.</p> <p> <emph>Nonexistent college readiness counseling course work</emph>. The absence of course work addressing postsecondary education left counselors without theoretical foundations, best practices, or data that would otherwise inform their practice. One respondent described her own counselor education program and those of her interns by saying, "There isn't anybody that I know of that is offering [training on] how to help the urban student make a transition to college. It is not on the agenda of the graduate school." In rare cases, postsecondary education was briefly included in career development courses, although with little emphasis on engaging unmotivated youth or the unique barriers faced by at‐risk students. However, even in these courses, participants believed that vocational theory was too far removed from the reality of how to engage students in thinking about their futures, especially for those experiencing significant environmental and personal risk factors. Similarly, participants described how career counseling courses that covered Holland's theory of vocational personalities and work environments ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref55">18</reflink>]) or traditional career theories had little relevance to engaging young people who hold little hope for their future.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-10">Discussion</hd> <p>This study examined urban high school counselors' experiences as college readiness counselors and their perceptions of their preparation for this role. Participants in this study described their responsibility as college readiness counselors as complex and requiring intensive intervention and support for both students and families as a consequence of the personal and familial issues experienced by this population of students. However, participants' ability to deliver appropriate counseling was further compromised by the absence of appropriate training in their graduate programs. Hence, there is a gap between counselor influence and counselor efficacy. This calls for increased attention to college readiness counseling knowledge and skills as an integral part of counselor education programs, especially those preparing counselors who will work with at‐risk populations. This lack of preparation potentially jeopardizes counselors' ability to work toward social justice for all students, and especially those with limited access to social capital networks that support postsecondary aspirations, knowledge, and attainment.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-11">Implications</hd> <p>College readiness counseling is a critical yet neglected part of future planning currently addressed in graduate training programs. Counselor educators should integrate college readiness counseling into the curriculum as a distinct course or by intentionally embedding it into existing career counseling course work. Such course work might include theoretical models describing college‐going behavior, postsecondary motivation, and college choice processes, especially those that take into account cultural identities and values ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref56">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref57">15</reflink>]). Likewise, literature from the fields of family/school engagement, motivation, and youth development offers useful frameworks for college readiness counseling. Exposure to such theoretical foundations as part of training in college readiness counseling could have a far‐reaching impact on urban school counselors' practice and their cultural competence in this work.</p> <p>The results from this study also provide insight into possible approaches for integration of this material. First, curricular efforts to prepare school counselors for college readiness counseling might use developmental models that use an ecological framework to understanding how young people develop future identities. For example, this approach might demonstrate how students' schooling experiences, parental expectations, and peer experiences shape students' future identities and choices across developmental stages. In this study, participants interpreted parental absence from college planning events as disinterest or disengagement. This deficit model of family support shaped the participants' college readiness counseling because they did not take into account the range of influences shaping this process. Exposure to the myriad challenges faced by urban families would prevent counselors from accepting and promoting stereotypes regarding their students' families. Second, joint course work shared by school counseling and higher education graduate programs that present the postsecondary development process and transition from high school to college can potentially foster a collaborative learning experience for future counselors and college student affairs officials. This course format will further signal the emphasis on college success embedded in the college readiness counseling process for at‐risk students, a clear concern among the study's participants.</p> <p>Finally, this research emphasizes the need for further research to identify college readiness counseling competencies to be required by state licensing boards and graduate course work. School counselors, counselor educators, organizations such as NACAC, the Education Trust, the College Board, and CACREP have called for the addition of college readiness counseling to graduate programs with limited results. This continued absence may result from a lack of clarity about what constitutes college readiness counseling competencies. Further research on this topic will inform the development of professional competencies and provide support to programs interested in expanding their curriculum.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-12">Limitations</hd> <p>Although several efforts were made to ensure the credibility of this study, methodological limitations included the narrow and small sample of participants, the focus on participant perception, and potential for researcher bias. Participants in this study were drawn from urban settings, which precluded the perspectives and experiences of those from rural and suburban schools. Although this study was not meant to provide a comparative look at counselors in diverse settings, this limitation suggests that the preparation and experiences of participants from other settings may not match those described in this study. In addition, although this study was successful in reaching saturation of the data, the small sample size limits the generalizability of results. Finally, this study focused on participants' perceptions and, as such, lacked inquiry into the experiences of students and family members referenced by participants, and, therefore, the accuracy of these perceptions is unknown.</p> <hd id="AN0076402444-13">Conclusion</hd> <p>Because school counselors are charged with promoting students' personal, academic, and career development, it follows that their role as college readiness counselors places them in a powerful position to promote college going, especially when working with students who face numerous barriers to enrolling and succeeding in higher education and have limited access to college preparation supports. With dedicated training in college readiness counseling, school counselors will enter the profession better equipped to apply their counseling skills to students' postsecondary development, thus realizing their important role in promoting educational equity and social justice.</p> <ref id="AN0076402444-14"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref21" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Adelman, C. (2006). The toolbox revisited: Paths to degree completion from high school through college. Washington, DC : U.S. Department of Education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref41" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Akos, P., & Scarborough, J. L. (2004). An examination of the clinical preparation of school counselors. Counselor Education and Supervision, 44, 96 – 107.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref15" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Baum, S., & Ma, J. (2007). Education pays: The benefits of higher education for individuals and society. 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  Data: The Gap between Influence and Efficacy: College Readiness Training, Urban School Counselors, and the Promotion of Equity
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  Data: This phenomenological study presents 11 urban school counselors' perceptions of their graduate education in school counseling in relation to their engagement in college readiness counseling with low-income, 1st-generation college-bound students. Findings from 2 rounds of interviews suggest that intentional strategies to integrate postsecondary readiness and planning into counselor education curricula is necessary to efficiently prepare school counselors to promote college access and success for at-risk youth, thereby reducing the inequities that currently exist in postsecondary degree attainment.
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