Self-Organized Communities of Practice in Physical Education
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| Title: | Self-Organized Communities of Practice in Physical Education |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Rhoades, Jesse Lee, Woods, Amelia |
| Source: | Quest. 2013 65(1):44-56. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 13 |
| Publication Date: | 2013 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Evaluative |
| Education Level: | Elementary Secondary Education Higher Education |
| Descriptors: | National Standards, Physical Education, Teacher Certification, Communities of Practice, Elementary Secondary Education, Educational Theories, Physical Education Teachers, Learning Processes, Epistemology, Teacher Effectiveness, Self Efficacy, Group Dynamics, Educational Practices |
| Geographic Terms: | United States |
| DOI: | 10.1080/00336297.2012.727371 |
| ISSN: | 0033-6297 |
| Abstract: | The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) was created in 1987 with the purpose of establishing standards for instruction for K-12 teachers within the U.S. The NBPTS was tasked with identifying and certifying teachers who met their standards. In the current article, we theorize on the potential avenues by which the NBPTS is currently establishing a Community of Practice (CoP) through its certification process. We examine pertinent literature and the certification process to support our theorization. In order to achieve this aim, Complexity Theory and Communities of Practice Theory serve as a lens for the explanation of CoPs among National Board Certification Candidates. (Contains 2 figures.) |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Number of References: | 37 |
| Entry Date: | 2013 |
| Accession Number: | EJ990886 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwE83nX4Me_O89B27SSuBDGPAAAA4jCB3wYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHRMIHOAgEAMIHIBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDD-HFuLjSFTks4BQewIBEICBmn3ULl6jKq2yrlI88wkPlXIvvyByJ8zGAAst1pKddVR6NXCitUN3kqFsRz1rvlrC4YbXYh8_Zdu-7ldukG-qH1k_PucBQfoLcmlb8Dix3fNWMdpDa15Yi6vKDqjBs8HutOeOTbWVWuVOxRFgMzY1Ig-wvxebFQE3nJEICLth7yPgWsmB-dnY4tnyvOArUk7fHUdYOPdCMcV-m3Q= Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0084923624;qus01jan.13;2019Mar15.13:06;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0084923624-1">Self-Organized Communities of Practice in Physical Education. </title> <p>The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) was created in 1987 with the purpose of establishing standards for instruction for K–12 teachers within the U.S. The NBPTS was tasked with identifying and certifying teachers who met their standards. In the current article, we theorize on the potential avenues by which the NBPTS is currently establishing a Community of Practice (CoP) through its certification process. We examine pertinent literature and the certification process to support our theorization. In order to achieve this aim, Complexity Theory and Communities of Practice Theory serve as a lens for the explanation of CoPs among National Board Certification Candidates.</p> <p>Keywords: Complexity theory; self-organization; communities of practice</p> <p>Nearly every educational reform initiative that seeks to improve student learning is accompanied by teacher professional development programs ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref1">15</reflink>]). The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), for example, was established in 1987 with the mandate of developing high and rigorous standards for education in the U.S. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref2">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref3">14</reflink>]). Its formation was in direct response to the congressional reports "A Nation at Risk" and "A Nation Prepared." The NBPTS currently awards advanced certification for teachers who meet their standards ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref4">24</reflink>]). The NBPTS certification process is a task-oriented progression that culminates in the development of a professional portfolio and practically assessed written activities. This process was designed to determine the extent to which a candidate has met the standards set by the NBPTS ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref5">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>Physical education has not been left out of this movement as, in 2001, the NBPTS began certifying Physical Education (PE) teachers. Certification through the NBPTS costs nearly $3,000 ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref6">29</reflink>]). As a result of this expense, many states and school districts provide funding for certification as well as mentoring services ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref7">11</reflink>]). As of July 2011, more than 91,000 teachers had been certified by the NBPTS, of which 1,669 were PE teachers ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref8">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>However, given the associated expenses, cost effectiveness of the National Board Certification (NBC) process has been questioned. Additionally, the effect of this certification process on the actual practices of certified teachers has been scrutinized by several studies ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref9">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref10">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref12">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref13">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref14">34</reflink>]). The NBPTS is specifically mandated to identify highly qualified teachers ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref15">25</reflink>]). The certification process in and of itself is not necessarily an instructional intervention method. Nonetheless, a number of scholars have examined the effect of the certification process, many reporting findings suggesting that the process positively affected the overall performance of successful candidates ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref16">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref17">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref18">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref19">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref20">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref21">34</reflink>]). Additionally, some authors have theorized that through collaboration and adherence to the standards of the NBPTS, National Board Certified Teachers (NBCT) develop a Community of Practice (CoP) ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref22">7</reflink>]). Consequently, the assessment of the certification process as a means to the production of CoPs has taken the evaluation of the effectiveness of the NBPTS in a new direction. In this paradigm, the result of the process is no longer the primary concern; rather, the mechanism of change is also of great interest.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-2">Purpose</hd> <p>In the current article, we examine literature and NBPTS documents that discuss the NBC process as well as research pertaining to NBCTs. A growing body of empirical evidence suggests that NBCTs have positive impact on self-efficacy, manage learning environments effectively, and increase student achievement through exceptional pedagogical techniques ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref23">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref24">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref25">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref26">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref27">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref28">34</reflink>]). A critical question, thus, is related to the nature of the mechanism through which this process affects teachers' instructional abilities. The current paper hypothesizes that a CoP emerges from the NBPTS certification process, and uses Community of Practice Theory (CoPT) as a possible explanation for many of the findings related to the influence of NBC on teacher candidates and their students. This paper, thus, proposes a theoretical link between the NBPTS certification process and the development of CoPs through the emergence of a shared repertoire among NBCTs.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-3">Theoretical Framework</hd> <p>Epistemology has endeavored to describe ways in which knowledge is produced in an effort to better understand the learning process of individuals within society (DeRose, 2009). Thus, if the NBPTS's certification process is changing the instructional practices of NBC candidates, structures that aid in the emergence of this new knowledge are a logical place to begin a theoretical analysis. The NBPTS has established a process of certification that can positively affect the student achievement of teachers that hold NBC ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref29">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref30">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref31">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref32">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref33">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>]). In an attempt to explain the positive outcomes that this certification possibly has on candidates, researchers have hypothesized that CoPs may be developing as a result of the NBC process ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref35">7</reflink>]). The current paper examines the theoretical basis for the development of CoPs among NBPTS candidates by employing two theoretical constructs. First, Complexity Theory (CT) is employed to describe the process by which systems, such as a CoP, could emerge. Second, CoPT describes the self-organization of communities of professionals, and through their organization, the emergence of context-specific knowledge that assists their community members in their efforts to further their profession ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref36">35</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref37">20</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-4">Complexity Theory</hd> <p>Complexity Theory, developed from Chaos Theory, has become increasingly understood as a relevant theoretical framework throughout the research community. Many diverse disciplines, such as physics, biology, chemistry, psychology, and pedagogy, have been heavily influenced by CT as a theoretical framework ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref38">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref39">22</reflink>]). As a result, CT has become a unifying field of study within developmental research ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref40">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref41">22</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref42">10</reflink>]) began this discussion in PE with the suggestion that learning environments can be viewed as a large dynamic system. The notion of dynamics and complexity in kinesiology has been most recently examined by [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref43">2</reflink>]) in their description of complexity and super complexity. In the following section, we describe the most basic aspects of CT.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-5">Systems</hd> <p>Systems come in many different forms, the prominent forms being simple, complicated, and complex ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref44">22</reflink>]). Simple systems rely on a simple number of interacting parts. There are few variables in these systems and their behavior is easily predictable. In contrast, complicated systems comprise a large number of interacting parts, which makes their behavior extremely difficult to predict, but nonetheless are predictable. Both simple and complicated systems adhere to a causal relationship between their component parts, relying on Newtonian mechanic principles for their predicted behavior ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref45">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref46">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref47">23</reflink>]). Complex systems, in contrast with simple and complicated systems, evolve over time, and co-evolve with their environments ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref48">23</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref49">32</reflink>]). Consequently, the interaction of the parts within a complex system actually account for some change within these systems ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref50">8</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-6">Self-Organization, Emergence, Feedback, and Sensitivity</hd> <p>Self-organization is a process by which a complex system creates order among its constituent parts ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref51">22</reflink>]). It is a bottom-up process through which a system creates order without any imposed instructions ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref52">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref53">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref54">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref55">23</reflink>]). Self-organization is an internal procedure and is a product of the co-adaptation of the complex system and its environment resulting in the emergence of system behaviors. An important aspect of self-organization and the subsequent emergence of system behavior is their interactions and co-evolution with their environments. This co-evolutionary process of self-organization and emergence creates a situation where the system alters its own functioning simply through the act of operating ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref56">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref57">22</reflink>]). However, this is a non-linear process, which yields a resistance to precise prediction of emergent phenomena ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref58">8</reflink>]). Changes in the organization of a system, and its emergent behavior are mediated by information about the surrounding environment ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref59">1</reflink>]). Feedback from emergent behavior aids in the self-organization of system behavior. This feedback can have an amplifying or dampening effect on emergent behavior. The system will amplify emergent behaviors that are beneficial, and dampen those which are detrimental. Thus, pressure from the environment assists in the adaptation of system behaviors whereby complex systems become complex adaptive systems (CAS).</p> <p>The notion that CASs are unpredictable may indicate a sort of chaos that would emerge during nonlinear behavior. However, it is important to note that, while complex phenomena resist precise predictions, according to some authors, it is still possible to attempt pattern prediction ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref60">17</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref61">18</reflink>]). This view is based on the premise that, with knowledge of the initial condition of a CAS and the environment in which it exists, there is a reasonable expectation that patterns can be predicted within this system. This is especially true in a system with very specific ordered parameters governed by strictly imposed laws. In essence, bottom-up self-organization will occur within the top-down imposed order ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref62">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref63">22</reflink>]). In this manner, the system negotiates the obstacles asserted by the external conditions imposed by the environment.</p> <p>A final key concept in the understanding of CASs is their sensitivity to initial conditions ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref64">21</reflink>]). The un-predictability inherent in the emergent behaviors of complex systems is related directly to their sensitivity to the origins of CASs. Thus, systems that have varying starting points may have vastly different outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref65">23</reflink>]). The non-linear reaction to causes is thus the key to understanding complex systems, as it is recognized that even small causes can have large effects on the system. This seemingly Newtonian contradiction is at the heart of the unpredictability of CASs.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-7">Community of Practice Theory</hd> <p>[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref66">36</reflink>]) defines a CoP as a "community which is formed by people who engage in a process of collective learning in a shared domain of human endeavor" (p. 1). To this end, CoPT has been used by several investigators as a means for describing social learning in professional development ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref67">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref68">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref69">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>According to [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref70">35</reflink>]), a CoP will organize itself around three essential characteristics—Mutual Engagement, Joint Enterprise, and Shared Repertoire—whereby the collective interaction of these elements allows for growth and learning within a community. These elements are emergent and arise as a product of necessity ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref71">35</reflink>]). The notion of emergence within professional development, where proactive measures are typically taken to initiate deep, meaningful developmental experiences, is interesting in that it indicates that CoPs will typically emerge out of necessity rather than through artificial prompting. Further, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref72">35</reflink>]) described how CoPs tend to develop a "Negotiated Regimen of Competence" (NRC), defined as competence in the given CoP-specific discipline that allows the CoP as a whole to expand its knowledge in a context-specific manner.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-8">Mutual Engagement</hd> <p>Mutual Engagement can be perceived as interaction among members of a community ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref73">35</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref74">36</reflink>]). These interactions are essential to problem solving and to the development of tools to handle issues arising within a discipline. Interactions among members of a CoP do not have to be extensive or regularly planned ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref75">35</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref76">36</reflink>]), but simply emerge as a product of necessity. This demand allows the CoP to self-organize and expand its domain.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-9">Joint Enterprise</hd> <p>This characteristic of CoPs can be viewed as the domain in which a group of professionals work ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref77">36</reflink>]). This enterprise joins people in a common effort that expands their domain ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref78">35</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref79">36</reflink>]) through the development of new conceptual tools, which, in turn, are used by the CoP ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref80">28</reflink>]). The expansion in physical education, for instance, might entail the development of strategies to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse student population. In this context, a CoP is valuable as it allows for constantly testing new conceptual tools, assessing their worth, and distributing them to other members to be tested again in other contexts. Thus Joint Enterprise emerges through reflection and thought ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref81">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref82">35</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-10">Shared Repertoire</hd> <p>Unified practice is a major concept within CoPT. This element is a product of the creation of tools through Joint Enterprise and Mutual Engagement. Armed with the combination of these two elements, the overall community is able to assemble a set of standard practices that become a communal toolbox ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref83">16</reflink>]). These tools, which are developed by the community, are often highly context-specific and allow the community to handle many issues that arise ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref84">7</reflink>]). This process supports new conceptual tools that flow from individual members to the whole community. Additionally, a shared repertoire allows the entire community to test individual ideas within their own context. Valid and beneficial ideas are accepted and added to the communal toolbox, and those perceived as irrelevant are eliminated and rejected by the community ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref85">20</reflink>]). This process allows new ideas to be tested continuously by the CoP, diversifying and adding to the overall NRC of the group ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref86">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref87">35</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-11">National Board Certification Process</hd> <p>In 1986, "A Nation Prepared" was published by the Carnegie Task Force on Teaching as a Profession. Essentially, this document chartered the NBPTS and charged the group with designing a voluntary advanced certification process for highly qualified teachers ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref88">4</reflink>]). The NBC process takes about three years to complete and mandates reflective teaching practices that are monitored through videotaped lessons and reflective journal entries incorporated into a professional portfolio ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref89">24</reflink>]). Additionally, NBC candidates undergo an instructional practices evaluation whereby they are tested through a series of classroom situations. Candidates are assessed by no fewer than 12 teachers, all of whom have been trained by the NBPTS to evaluate prospective NBCTs ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref90">25</reflink>]). This evaluative process is rigorous, with a success rate of approximately 45% ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref91">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>Evaluations are based on standards that have been developed by the NBPTS for each eligible content area. Moreover, although each content area has different standards, the NBPTS bases its certification on five core propositions: (a) teachers are committed to students and their learning, (b) teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to students, (c) teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning, (d) teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from experience, and (e) teachers are members of learning communities ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref92">24</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-12">Effectiveness of National Board Certified Teachers</hd> <p>Although the effectiveness of NBCTs has been examined in several studies ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref93">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref94">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref95">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref96">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref97">34</reflink>]) this effort has been largely focused on classroom teachers. The lack of readily available PE outcome measures may be a cause of this limited number of NBCT studies dealing with this educational field. This paucity of empirical evidence is also related to the fact that the primary data sources for many of these studies are student achievement data and annual achievement tests. Additionally, several investigations have used standardized test scores in an endeavor to determine differences between the instruction of NBCTs and non-NBCTs ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref98">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref99">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref100">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref101">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>The United States Department of Education (USDE) was one of the first agencies to investigate NBCTs ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref102">33</reflink>]) through a study that identified key characteristics of effective teachers. The USDE's review of relevant literature identified 13 key attributes associated with expert teaching: use of knowledge, deep representations, problem solving, improvisation, classroom climate, multidimensional perception sensitivity to context, monitoring learning, testing hypothesis, passion for teaching, respect for students, challenge, and deep understanding ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref103">33</reflink>]). Moreover, when the USDE observed 65 teachers, of whom 31 were NBCTs, to determine the extent to which these teachers exhibited traits of expert teaching, the findings indicated that the NBCTs outperformed their counterparts in all 13 categories.</p> <p>Another study compared the instructional quality of NBC candidates who passed and failed the certification ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref104">3</reflink>]) using Narrative Running Record and other observation protocols. The authors found that successful NBCTs had a distinct passion for their work, and noted that the NBC process is a signification of excellent instructional practice.</p> <p>In a similar study that used the North Carolina accountability system to examine student outcomes of NBCTs, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref105">13</reflink>]) found that students taught by NBCTs had significantly higher scores on end-of-year reading and mathematics tests. They concluded that the NBPTS was identifying and certifying highly qualified instructors. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref106">5</reflink>]) and [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref107">34</reflink>]) reported similar results in their respective studies of ninth and tenth graders' mathematics outcomes and scores on the Stanford achievement test. Both of these investigations suggest that NBCTs attain a high degree of student achievement.</p> <p>These studies suggest that the NBC process is either successfully identifying highly qualified candidates for its certification process or creating an experience in which these teachers are developing better instructional practices. Interestingly, this concept of improved or excellent instructional practices is emphasized by the second and third propositions of the NBPTS, which mandate that a successful NBC candidate will have exceptional instructional practices.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-13">Self-Efficacy and National Board Certified Teachers</hd> <p>Research indicates that NBCTs hold a high sense of esteem as well as general and personal self-efficacy ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref108">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref109">11</reflink>]). A comparison of NBC candidates that had achieved certification and their unsuccessful counterparts showed that the former had a significantly higher sense of personal teacher self-efficacy than their counterparts did ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref110">11</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref111">30</reflink>]) also compared the efficacy of NBCTs who were successful at certification with that of unsuccessful candidates, and reported similar findings. Overall, these studies suggest that the successful completion of the NBC process is related to higher teaching efficacy. Remarkably, the first proposition the NBPTS appears to mandate the development of self-efficacy among its certified teachers. These findings suggest that successful NBC candidates are effectively exhibiting proposition one in their practice.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-14">Theoretical CoP Production as a Result of NBC</hd> <p>The NBPTS certification process can be conceptualized as a CAS. Figure 1 illustrates this conceptualization in a way that explains the emergence of system behavior within the NBPTS certification process. Systems, like the NBPTS certification program, tend to self-organize based on survival or advantage ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref112">23</reflink>]). In the case of the NBPTS, survival is reflected in the ability of the system to produce candidates that can successfully achieve NBC. Conversely, the demise of this CAS would be a system that fails to produce candidates capable of achieving NBC. If the system doesn't produce successful candidates, members would eventually fail to gain certification. Failure of emergent behaviors to produce successful candidates would act as a form of feedback that has the potential to dampen the behavior that leads to failure. Thus, it is assumed that CASs tend to self-organize and produce emergent behavior that aids in the survival of the system ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref113">23</reflink>]). This self-organization requires adaptation in order to produce behaviors that will result in successful outcomes. As continuous cycles of emergence and feedback promote the emergent behaviors that successfully adapt to the changing external environment, in the case of the NBPTS, the CAS must develop adaptive behaviors that allow its members an avenue for successful completion of NBC.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. NBC process as a complex adaptive system (adapted from [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref114">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Importantly, the adaptation of behaviors is affected by the inflow of information about the external environment ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref115">1</reflink>]). Likewise, information flows out to the environment regarding emergent behaviors, establishing a co-evolutionary process of CASs with their external environments. This codependence makes the understanding of the environment in which CASs exists important. In this context, the NBPTS can be considered the environment, with the rules the NBPTS places on their certification process as the corresponding environmental conditions. In order for the NBC CAS to survive, it must adapt to the environmental conditions established by the NBPTS. Additionally, the co-evolution of the NBC CAS and the NBPTS-established environment would imply that rules the NBPTS has established for its certification program are adaptable. Interestingly, the NBPTS describes its standards as a living document, suggesting that they can evolve ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref116">31</reflink>]). The co-evolutionary process of the NBC CAS is illustrated below in Figure 1.</p> <p>At this point, it is informative to conduct a further examination of the environmental conditions the NBPTS places on its certification program, as it aids in understanding how the development of this CAS theoretically supports the creation of CoPs among its certification candidates. The NBPTS certification environment contains five major environmental conditions, represented by the five core propositions that encompass five main beliefs. First, teachers should believe that they are capable of effecting change through their instruction. Second, teachers should be able to teach their subjects competently. Third, teachers should be able to effectively manage their learning environments. Fourth, teachers should be reflective practitioners, and fifth, teachers should be able to collaborate with other education professionals as well as stake holders.</p> <p>Complexity Theory allows for speculation that, much like a hive of insects, the candidates for this certification program develop simple rules that allow them to adapt to the certification "environment" established through the five core propositions. In short, these rules could be as simple as: (a) believe in yourself, (b) know your subject, (c) control your class, (d) reflect, and (e) collaborate. These five simple rules cause the conceptual hive to act in such a way as to develop tools that would aid in its success. Additionally, we contend that embedded within these modest commands are the means by which the entire system can develop emergent behaviors that allow candidates to be successful. We theorize that these emergent behaviors initially develop through the fourth and fifth commands—reflect and collaborate—these mandate that each candidate show the ability to collaborate with a larger instructional community. Moreover, these commands set in motion the ability of this system to generate and communicate information. However, as the members of this system are required to think about their practice systematically in order to carry out best practices, the creation of Mutual Engagement and the development of a Joint Enterprise among NBC candidates becomes essential. The adherence of the system to these two commands may create emergent behaviors that generate a Shared Repertoire or hive knowledge and thus the ability to create an NRC through the establishment of a CoP, as described by [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref117">35</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-15">Mode of Success</hd> <p>We propose a potential explanation for the cause of behaviors that emerge from the co-evolution of NBC candidates and the environmental conditions established by the NBPTS. This conceptualized emergent behavior is illustrated in Figure 2. We postulate that, through the establishment of propositions four and five, the CAS could create a CoP and thus create an NRC. Furthermore, this NRC could assist in the achievement of higher instructional quality and management of learning environments, which have been found in NBCT classrooms ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref118">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref119">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref120">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref121">34</reflink>]). Of particular relevance to this article are the findings by [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref122">27</reflink>]) that showed that NBC physical education teachers scored higher on PE standardized testing in South Carolina. Phillips finding seems to suggest a possible relationship exists between the NBC process and standardized testing scores in PE. While these findings, in the classroom and in the gymnasium, are far from predicting causality they do seem to suggest the possibility that NBCTs are successfully demonstrating propositions two and three. It could additionally be argued that, this elevated competence in their instruction may, in turn, lead to a higher sense of self-efficacy, which has also been found for the NBCT population ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref123">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref124">11</reflink>]). These findings of high efficacy among NBCTs suggest that successful NBC candidates are achieving proposition one.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. A model of self-organizational emergence in NBPTS communities of practice.</p> <p>It could, however, be postulated that instead of candidates learning from the process, some teachers who are attracted to the NBC process are already highly qualified, highly efficacious teachers, and thus could achieve propositions one, two and three without the certification process. However, even if this assertion proves to be true, it is unlikely that these teachers are the only candidates enrolled in this certification program. A more likely assertion would be that the NBPTS is attracting a diverse population of candidates. It could be speculated that some teachers are intrinsically motivated for the process, and yet others are extrinsically motivated through incentives like merit pay associated with successful completion of NBC. Either of these motivational routes for pursuing certification presents exciting possibilities in that both types of candidates add to the overall diversity of thought and discourse within the CoP. Consequently an exceptionally well developed NRC based on the input of highly qualified teachers, and other more novice teachers is developed through their community discourse. This process could allow for an exceptional professional development program for teachers who need it and a reinforcing activity for teachers who are already of high quality.</p> <p>This conceptualized sequence of behaviors can explain findings about NBCTs as well as the CoP engine, which may be established by the NBPTS. However, although empirical evidence points to the achievement of propositions one, two and three, little research has been conducted in relation to propositions four and five.</p> <p>Finally, if the NBPTS is producing CoPs as a product of the candidates' CAS, feedback becomes a central construct. The CAS relies on feedback whether it is of a positive or negative nature, as it allows the self-organization, which occurs among its members, to adapt to the changing environment. For instance, if the system had an emergent behavior that resulted in a large number of failures, these failures would act as a dampening form of feedback that informs and has an effect on the emergence of behaviors within a complex system. Conversely, if a large number of successes occur as a result of an emergent behavior, this would act as an amplifying form of feedback, ultimately reinforcing the emergent behavior. The NBPTS certification program has propositions that allow for the creation of a Joint Enterprise and Mutual Engagement. We speculate that a Shared Repertoire could be formed as a result of the fourth and fifth propositions. The resultant CoP could produce an NRC that would, in turn, allow for successful completion of the certification program. Additionally, these successes would constitute a form of amplifying feedback, thus increasing the probability of that behavior.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-16">The NBC Hive</hd> <p>While hypothesizing about the emergence of a CoP among these candidates seems to hold some merit, a key issue with this hypothesis is the relative unpredictability of the CASs. It is true that precise prediction that is common in traditional analytic and reductionist research is unobtainable in complex systems. Pattern prediction, nonetheless, has been seen as a viable option in the prediction of CAS behavior ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref125">17</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref126">18</reflink>]). For example, within colonies of insects, the search for food tends to be a major quest in the survival of these systems, and thus a major form of self-organization. However, when attempting to predict a colony of ants' path to the nearest food source, it is impossible to predict the precise path the ants will take. Nonetheless, through examination of the environment in which this search will occur and the placement of the ant colony, we can make a pattern prediction as to the path that will eventually emerge and bring food back to the colony.</p> <p>Consequently, can we predict with certainty that a CoP will form as a result of the NBC process? Quite simply, it is not certain that CoPs will develop from this certification program. However, we speculate that this is a probable pattern that emerges from the confluence of the initial and environmental conditions in which their CAS is surrounded. The inevitable question, however, emerges—is it possible for a candidate to successfully get through this certification process without becoming a member of a CoP? Although the answer is 'yes,' it is likely that—without the actual act of collaborating—it is more difficult for a candidate to meet propositions four and five. Thus, it is evident that the development of a CoP would allow for successful demonstration of propositions four and five and through its NRC make the achievement of proposition one, two, and three a part of the CoP development. CT explains that more difficult paths result in dampening feedback, which makes that path less likely to be used. Simply put, although certification without collaboration is possible, it can be speculated that, over time, the easier path of collaboration would become the preferred path. Consequently, the establishment of CoPs among NBC candidates becomes an increasingly predictable pathway.</p> <p>Finally, though CoPs within the NBC context seem to be somewhat predictable, the dynamic environment of each individual member's local school presents a great amount of instability and unpredictability. Simply put the environment in which the NBC candidate teaches on a daily basis will have a impact on the development of a CoP. This isn't that CoPs won't form as a result of the influence of a teacher's local environment, but it does indicate that the trajectory of their involvement with an emergent CoP may be affected. Moreover, it will be interesting to understand the dynamics of the local school environment as well as the CoP after certification has been achieved. Does the successful candidate affect their local environment, or will the local environment degrade the candidate's involvement with their developed CoP?</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-17">Implications for Physical Education Teacher Education</hd> <p>According to [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref127">27</reflink>]), the NBPTS has been successful in the identification of highly effective PE specialists. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref128">37</reflink>]), likewise, found that most of the NBCPETs they studied reported that the certification process resulted in greater teaching reflection and focus on student learning and assessment, elevation in their perceived status and credibility, and expansion of opportunities within the educational community. Anecdotal reports and surveys of teachers outside the PE field also indicate that NBPTS certification provides outstanding professional development ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref129">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref130">6</reflink>]), and that the process positively affected teachers' practice over time, although this impact varied ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref131">7</reflink>]). Given these positive certification outcomes, it seems prudent to promote NBC among physical educators. However, it needs to be understood that these results could be a product of the NBPTS certification process, and while not every teacher will be willing to participate in this certification program, we can bring the ideas of the NBPTS to our Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs. Whether we outsource the production of CoPs to the NBPTS or we facilitate CoP growth in our own programs, it is a valuable form of professional development that needs to be actively promoted among our graduates.</p> <hd id="AN0084923624-18">Future Research</hd> <p>This article speculated that the NBPTS certification process could promote the development of CoPs. While this hypothesis is solidly grounded in contemporary CT, direct case studies of these phenomena are needed. Specific attention should be placed on the study of the initial condition of NBC candidates. Although it is recognized that the sensitivity of complex systems to their environments, as well as the initial conditions is important, this article primarily focused on the conceptual environment established by the NBPTS. Additionally the question of CoP sustainability needs to be addressed. Simply put we need to examine if CoPs that arise from the NBC process are able to develop a level of sustainability outside of the NBC environment. Along this same line, how do CoPs evolve after creation? The school environment can be characterized as having a level of super complexity. How does this super complex environment affect the evolution of the NBC CoP as a CAS?</p> <p>Finally, future research on NBCTs should center on these teachers' ability to reflect and create learning communities. This research will allow insight into the possible development of CoPs as a result of propositions four and five. Until this research yields some findings, the precise mode by which the NBPTS affects candidates will not be known. Overall, research in this area may allow further insight to pattern prediction within CAS, and may eventually support the determination of optimal initial conditions for certification.</p> <p>Physical Education could benefit from this research in that the creation of pre-service programming that could promote the creation of CoPs among our students would be advantageous to our profession. Induction year PE teachers who have developed an NRC with their classmates may thus gain an ability to overcome some major issues that have emerged within physical education, such as accountability, marginalization, and burnout. It is likely that a strong community among our students would be a mediating factor in mitigating extant and emerging problems in this field. The creation of a conceptual PE teacher education "hive" may allow the development of hive knowledge and hive commands that can benefit our graduates. CT tells us that the concepts of self-organization, emergence, co-evolution, and feedback are already at work on our PETE programs. Our students are involved in a CAS and this system does co-evolve with us as PETE faculty, and the educational environment we establish. Through examination of the CAS associated with the NBPTS, we can achieve a higher understanding of the influences on our students and their education.</p> <ref id="AN0084923624-19"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref59" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Andrus, C.2005. The Wiki and the blog: Toward a complex adaptive intelligence community. Studies in Intelligence, 49(3): 63–70.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref43" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Block, B. A. and Estes, S.2011. Supercomplexity in higher education kinesiology. 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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Self-Organized Communities of Practice in Physical Education – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rhoades%2C+Jesse+Lee%22">Rhoades, Jesse Lee</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Woods%2C+Amelia%22">Woods, Amelia</searchLink> – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Quest%22"><i>Quest</i></searchLink>. 2013 65(1):44-56. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 13 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2013 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Evaluative – Name: Audience Label: Education Level Group: Audnce Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22National+Standards%22">National Standards</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Education%22">Physical Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Certification%22">Teacher Certification</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Communities+of+Practice%22">Communities of Practice</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Theories%22">Educational Theories</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Education+Teachers%22">Physical Education Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learning+Processes%22">Learning Processes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Epistemology%22">Epistemology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Effectiveness%22">Teacher Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Group+Dynamics%22">Group Dynamics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Practices%22">Educational Practices</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Geographic Terms Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22United+States%22">United States</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/00336297.2012.727371 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0033-6297 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) was created in 1987 with the purpose of establishing standards for instruction for K-12 teachers within the U.S. The NBPTS was tasked with identifying and certifying teachers who met their standards. In the current article, we theorize on the potential avenues by which the NBPTS is currently establishing a Community of Practice (CoP) through its certification process. We examine pertinent literature and the certification process to support our theorization. In order to achieve this aim, Complexity Theory and Communities of Practice Theory serve as a lens for the explanation of CoPs among National Board Certification Candidates. (Contains 2 figures.) – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: Ref Label: Number of References Group: RefInfo Data: 37 – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2013 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ990886 |
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| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/00336297.2012.727371 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 13 StartPage: 44 Subjects: – SubjectFull: National Standards Type: general – SubjectFull: Physical Education Type: general – SubjectFull: Teacher Certification Type: general – SubjectFull: Communities of Practice Type: general – SubjectFull: Elementary Secondary Education Type: general – SubjectFull: Educational Theories Type: general – SubjectFull: Physical Education Teachers Type: general – SubjectFull: Learning Processes Type: general – SubjectFull: Epistemology Type: general – SubjectFull: Teacher Effectiveness Type: general – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy Type: general – SubjectFull: Group Dynamics Type: general – SubjectFull: Educational Practices Type: general – SubjectFull: United States Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Self-Organized Communities of Practice in Physical Education Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Rhoades, Jesse Lee – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Woods, Amelia IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 01 Type: published Y: 2013 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0033-6297 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 65 – Type: issue Value: 1 Titles: – TitleFull: Quest Type: main |
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