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The use of smallpox as a bioweapon against native americans.

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Title: The use of smallpox as a bioweapon against native americans.
Alternate Title: El uso de la viruela como arma biológica contra los nativos americanos.
Authors: Nikolakakis, Ioannis1 (AUTHOR), Michaleas, Spyros N.1 (AUTHOR) sp.michaleas@gmail.com, Mourouzis, Iordanis2 (AUTHOR), Basdra, Efthymia3 (AUTHOR), Karamanou, Marianna1 (AUTHOR)
Source: Medicina (Buenos Aires). sep/oct2025, Vol. 85 Issue 5, p1119-1122. 4p.
Subjects: SMALLPOX, BIOLOGICAL weapons, NATIVE Americans, OJIBWE (North American people), COLONIZATION, BIOLOGICAL warfare, HUMAN experimentation
Geographic Terms: PONTIAC (Mich.), AMERICAS
Abstract (English): This study examines the use of smallpox as a bio logical weapon during the European colonization of the Americas, focusing on its deployment against in digenous populations as an early example of unethical human experimentation and biowarfare. Primary and secondary historical sources were reviewed, including correspondence from British military officers and docu mented accounts of smallpox-infected materials being deliberately distributed to Native American populations. Evidence from historical accounts, particularly exchang es between General Jeffrey Amherst and Colonel Henry Bouquet, indicates intentional efforts to spread smallpox among Native Americans during Pontiac's Rebellion. Al though outbreaks followed these events, the impact was less widespread than anticipated, likely due to partial immunity within some indigenous populations. Addi tional reports suggest similar strategies were employed against the Chippewa tribe, and with later accounts possibly linking the 1831 Pawnee epidemic to contami nated trade routes. In conclusion, the intentional use of smallpox as a bioweapon during European colonization represents an early instance of biowarfare. These histori cal events underscore the ethical and public health risks associated with biowarfare and the discriminatory use of such weapons against indigenous tribes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Abstract (Spanish): Este estudio examina el uso de la viruela como arma biológica durante la colonización europea de las Amé ricas, centrándose en su implementación contra las poblaciones indígenas como un temprano ejemplo de experimentación humana no ética y guerra biológica. Se revisaron fuentes históricas primarias y secunda rias, incluyendo correspondencia de oficiales militares británicos y relatos documentados sobre la distribución deliberada de materiales infectados con viruela a las poblaciones nativas americanas. La evidencia de relatos históricos, en particular los intercambios entre el general Jeffrey Amherst y el coronel Henry Bouquet, indica es fuerzos intencionales para propagar la viruela entre los nativos americanos durante la Rebelión de Pontiac. Aun que se produjeron brotes tras estos eventos, el impacto fue menos extendido de lo esperado, probablemente debido a la inmunidad parcial en algunas poblaciones indígenas. Informes adicionales sugieren que estrategias similares fueron empleadas contra la tribu Chippewa y relatos posteriores podrían vincular la epidemia de 1831 en los Pawnee con rutas comerciales contaminadas. En conclusión, el uso intencional de la viruela como arma biológica durante la colonización europea representa un caso temprano de guerra biológica. Estos eventos históricos resaltan los riesgos éticos y de salud pública asociados con la guerra biológica y el uso discriminatorio de tales armas contra las tribus indígenas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Medicina (Buenos Aires) is the property of Medicina (Buenos Aires) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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Header DbId: lth
DbLabel: MedicLatina
An: 189688830
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PubTypeId: academicJournal
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: The use of smallpox as a bioweapon against native americans.
– Name: TitleAlt
  Label: Alternate Title
  Group: TiAlt
  Data: El uso de la viruela como arma biológica contra los nativos americanos.
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Nikolakakis%2C+Ioannis%22">Nikolakakis, Ioannis</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Michaleas%2C+Spyros+N%2E%22">Michaleas, Spyros N.</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> sp.michaleas@gmail.com</i><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mourouzis%2C+Iordanis%22">Mourouzis, Iordanis</searchLink><relatesTo>2</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Basdra%2C+Efthymia%22">Basdra, Efthymia</searchLink><relatesTo>3</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Karamanou%2C+Marianna%22">Karamanou, Marianna</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22Medicina+%28Buenos+Aires%29%22">Medicina (Buenos Aires)</searchLink>. sep/oct2025, Vol. 85 Issue 5, p1119-1122. 4p.
– Name: Subject
  Label: Subjects
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22SMALLPOX%22">SMALLPOX</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22BIOLOGICAL+weapons%22">BIOLOGICAL weapons</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22NATIVE+Americans%22">NATIVE Americans</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22OJIBWE+%28North+American+people%29%22">OJIBWE (North American people)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22COLONIZATION%22">COLONIZATION</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22BIOLOGICAL+warfare%22">BIOLOGICAL warfare</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22HUMAN+experimentation%22">HUMAN experimentation</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectGeographic
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22PONTIAC+%28Mich%2E%29%22">PONTIAC (Mich.)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22AMERICAS%22">AMERICAS</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract (English)
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study examines the use of smallpox as a bio logical weapon during the European colonization of the Americas, focusing on its deployment against in digenous populations as an early example of unethical human experimentation and biowarfare. Primary and secondary historical sources were reviewed, including correspondence from British military officers and docu mented accounts of smallpox-infected materials being deliberately distributed to Native American populations. Evidence from historical accounts, particularly exchang es between General Jeffrey Amherst and Colonel Henry Bouquet, indicates intentional efforts to spread smallpox among Native Americans during Pontiac's Rebellion. Al though outbreaks followed these events, the impact was less widespread than anticipated, likely due to partial immunity within some indigenous populations. Addi tional reports suggest similar strategies were employed against the Chippewa tribe, and with later accounts possibly linking the 1831 Pawnee epidemic to contami nated trade routes. In conclusion, the intentional use of smallpox as a bioweapon during European colonization represents an early instance of biowarfare. These histori cal events underscore the ethical and public health risks associated with biowarfare and the discriminatory use of such weapons against indigenous tribes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract (Spanish)
  Group: Ab
  Data: Este estudio examina el uso de la viruela como arma biológica durante la colonización europea de las Amé ricas, centrándose en su implementación contra las poblaciones indígenas como un temprano ejemplo de experimentación humana no ética y guerra biológica. Se revisaron fuentes históricas primarias y secunda rias, incluyendo correspondencia de oficiales militares británicos y relatos documentados sobre la distribución deliberada de materiales infectados con viruela a las poblaciones nativas americanas. La evidencia de relatos históricos, en particular los intercambios entre el general Jeffrey Amherst y el coronel Henry Bouquet, indica es fuerzos intencionales para propagar la viruela entre los nativos americanos durante la Rebelión de Pontiac. Aun que se produjeron brotes tras estos eventos, el impacto fue menos extendido de lo esperado, probablemente debido a la inmunidad parcial en algunas poblaciones indígenas. Informes adicionales sugieren que estrategias similares fueron empleadas contra la tribu Chippewa y relatos posteriores podrían vincular la epidemia de 1831 en los Pawnee con rutas comerciales contaminadas. En conclusión, el uso intencional de la viruela como arma biológica durante la colonización europea representa un caso temprano de guerra biológica. Estos eventos históricos resaltan los riesgos éticos y de salud pública asociados con la guerra biológica y el uso discriminatorio de tales armas contra las tribus indígenas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: AbstractSuppliedCopyright
  Label:
  Group: Ab
  Data: <i>Copyright of Medicina (Buenos Aires) is the property of Medicina (Buenos Aires) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Languages:
      – Code: eng
        Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 4
        StartPage: 1119
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: SMALLPOX
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: BIOLOGICAL weapons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: NATIVE Americans
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: OJIBWE (North American people)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: COLONIZATION
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: BIOLOGICAL warfare
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: HUMAN experimentation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: PONTIAC (Mich.)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: AMERICAS
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The use of smallpox as a bioweapon against native americans.
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            NameFull: Michaleas, Spyros N.
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            NameFull: Mourouzis, Iordanis
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            NameFull: Basdra, Efthymia
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            – D: 01
              M: 09
              Text: sep/oct2025
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
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