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The private solution trap in collective action problems across 34 nations.

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Title: The private solution trap in collective action problems across 34 nations.
Authors: Malthouse E; Centre for Decision Research and Experimental Economics, School of Economics, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NR7 2QX, United Kingdom., Pilgrim C; School of Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom., Sgroi D; Department of Economics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom., Accerenzi M; Fundación ETEA-Development Institute of Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Córdoba 14004, Spain., Alfonso A; Department of Applied Economics I, University of Seville, Sevilla 41018, Spain., Ashraf RU; Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw, Warsaw 00-241, Poland., Baard M; Environmental Policy Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7700, South Africa., Banerjee S; School for Government, The Policy Institute, King's College London, London WC2B 4LL, United Kingdom., Belianin A; National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow 101000, Russia.; Almaty Management University, Almaty 050060, Kazakhstan., Bhattacharjee S; Jindal School of Government and Public Policy, O.P. Jindal Global University, Haryana 131001, India., Bhattacharya M; Department of Economics, Ashoka University, Haryana 131029, India., Brañas-Garza P; LoyolaBehLAB, Department of Finance, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Córdoba 14004, Spain., Cárdenas JC; Facultad de Economía, Universidad de los Andes, Cundinamarca, Bogotá 111711, Colombia.; Department of Economics, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003., Carriquiry M; Instituto de Economía, Universidad de la República de Uruguay, Montevideo 11200, Uruguay., Choi S; Department of Economics, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea., Clochard GJ; Institute of Social and Economics Research, University of Osaka, Osaka 567-0047, Japan.; Joint Initiative for Latin American Experimental Economics, Buenos Aires C1054 AAF, Argentina., Denzon EE; John Gokongwei School of Management, Ateneo de Manila University, Metro Manila 1108, Philippines., Dessoulavy-Sliwinski B; Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw, Warsaw 00-241, Poland., Dini G; Department of Economics, University of Bologna, Bologna 40126, Italy., Dong L; Southern University of Science and Technology, Guangdong Province 518055, China., Ertl A; ELTE Centre for Economic and Regional Studies, Budapest 1097, Hungary.; School of Social Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík 102, Iceland., Exadaktylos F; Universidad de Barcelona, Barcelona 08007, Spain., Filiz-Ozbay E; Department of Economics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742., Flecke SL; Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London WC1H 0AP, United Kingdom., Galeotti F; CNRS, Université Lumière Lyon 2, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Etienne, Emlyon Business School, GATE, Lyon 69007, France., Garcia-Muñoz T; University of Granada, Granada 18012, Spain., Hanaki N; Institute of Social and Economics Research, University of Osaka, Osaka 567-0047, Japan.; University of Limassol, Limassol 3020, Cyprus., Hollard G; Center for Research in Economics and Statistics, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau 91120, France.; CNRS, Paris Cedex 16 75794, France., Horn D; ELTE Centre for Economic and Regional Studies, Budapest 1097, Hungary.; Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest 1093, Hungary., Huang L; Shandong University, Jinan, Licheng District 250100, China., İriş D; Department of Economics, Sogang University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea., Kiss HJ; ELTE Centre for Economic and Regional Studies, Budapest 1097, Hungary.; Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest 1093, Hungary., Koch J; Economics Department at Lund University School of Economics and Management, Lund 223 63, Sweden., Kovářík J; Departamento de Análisis Económico, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao 48015, Spain.; Faculty of Economics, University of West Bohemia, Plzeň 306 14, Czech Republic., Kwarteng OKB; Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra GA-489-1402, Ghana., Lange A; Department of Economics, Faculty of Business, Economics and Social Sciences of the University of Hamburg, Hamburg 20146, Germany., Leites M; Universidad de la República de Uruguay, Montevideo 11200, Uruguay., Leung TH; University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721., Lim W; The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong., Morren M; Department of Marketing, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081 HV, Netherlands., Nockur L; Department of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark., Okyere CY; Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra GA-489-1402, Ghana., Oudah M; Division of Social Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi PO Box 129188, United Arab Emirates.; Center for Behavioral Institutional Design, New York University Abu Dhabi Research Institute, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi PO Box 129188, United Arab Emirates., Ozkes AI; SKEMA Business School, Groupe de Recherche en Droit, Économie et Gestion, Université Côte d'Azur, Lille 59777, France.; Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna 1020, Austria., Page L; School of Economics, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia., Park J; Seoul National University, Seoul 04107, Republic of Korea., Pfattheicher S; Department of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark., Proestakis A; Department of Nutrition and Dietetics Sciences, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Sitia 72300, Greece., Ramos C; LoyolaBehLAB, Department of Finance, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Córdoba 14004, Spain.; Instituto Tecnológico de Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo 10602, Dominican Republic., Ramos-Sosa M; Department of Applied Economic Analysis, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas 35017, Spain., Ashraf MS; School of Tourism Management, Hengxing University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, Shandong 266100, China., Sanjaya MR; Universitas Gadjah Mada, Kabupaten Sleman, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia., Schwaiger R; Department of Banking and Finance, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria., Sene O; Alioune Diop University of Bambey, Bambey BP 16617, Senegal., Song F; Ted Rogers School of Management, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada., Spycher S; Department of Management, Technology, and Economics, ETH Zurich, Zürich 8092, Switzerland., Staněk R; Faculty of Economics and Administration, Masaryk University, Brno 601 77, Czechia., Tanchingco N; John Gokongwei School of Management, Ateneo de Manila University, Metro Manila 1108, Philippines., Tavoni A; Department of Economics, University of Bologna, Bologna 40126, Italy.; Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, London School of Economics, London WC2A 2AE, United Kingdom., Te Velde V; School of Economics, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia., Vázquez-De Francisco MJ; Fundación ETEA-Development Institute of Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Córdoba 14004, Spain., Visser M; University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7700, South Africa., Wang JT; Department of Economics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.; Taiwan Social Resilience Research Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan., Wang W; School of Information, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109., Weng WC; Department of Economics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.; Taiwan Social Resilience Research Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan., Werner K; Department of Economics, University of Cologne, Cologne D-50937, Germany.; School of Business, Economics, and Information Systems, University of Passau, Passau D-94032, Germany., Wijayanti A; Universitas Gadjah Mada, Kabupaten Sleman, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia., Winkler R; Department of Economics and Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, Bern CH-3012, Switzerland., Wooders J; Division of Social Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi PO Box 129188, United Arab Emirates.; Center for Behavioral Institutional Design, New York University Abu Dhabi Research Institute, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi PO Box 129188, United Arab Emirates., Ying L; Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China., Zhen W; Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China., Hills T; Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom.
Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America [Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A] 2026 Mar 24; Vol. 123 (12), pp. e2504632123. Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Mar 20.
Publication Type: Journal Article
Journal Info: Publisher: National Academy of Sciences Country of Publication: United States NLM ID: 7505876 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1091-6490 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 00278424 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A Subsets: MEDLINE; PubMed not MEDLINE
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Institute of Social and Economics Research, University of Osaka, Osaka 567-0047, Japan.; Joint Initiative for Latin American Experimental Economics, Buenos Aires C1054 AAF, Argentina.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Denzon+EE%22">Denzon EE</searchLink>; John Gokongwei School of Management, Ateneo de Manila University, Metro Manila 1108, Philippines.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Dessoulavy-Sliwinski+B%22">Dessoulavy-Sliwinski B</searchLink>; Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw, Warsaw 00-241, Poland.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Dini+G%22">Dini G</searchLink>; Department of Economics, University of Bologna, Bologna 40126, Italy.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Dong+L%22">Dong L</searchLink>; Southern University of Science and Technology, Guangdong Province 518055, China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Ertl+A%22">Ertl A</searchLink>; ELTE Centre for Economic and Regional Studies, Budapest 1097, Hungary.; School of Social Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík 102, Iceland.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Exadaktylos+F%22">Exadaktylos F</searchLink>; Universidad de Barcelona, Barcelona 08007, Spain.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Filiz-Ozbay+E%22">Filiz-Ozbay E</searchLink>; Department of Economics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Flecke+SL%22">Flecke SL</searchLink>; Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London WC1H 0AP, United Kingdom.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Galeotti+F%22">Galeotti F</searchLink>; CNRS, Université Lumière Lyon 2, Université Jean Monnet Saint-Etienne, Emlyon Business School, GATE, Lyon 69007, France.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Garcia-Muñoz+T%22">Garcia-Muñoz T</searchLink>; University of Granada, Granada 18012, Spain.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Hanaki+N%22">Hanaki N</searchLink>; Institute of Social and Economics Research, University of Osaka, Osaka 567-0047, Japan.; University of Limassol, Limassol 3020, Cyprus.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Hollard+G%22">Hollard G</searchLink>; Center for Research in Economics and Statistics, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau 91120, France.; CNRS, Paris Cedex 16 75794, France.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Horn+D%22">Horn D</searchLink>; ELTE Centre for Economic and Regional Studies, Budapest 1097, Hungary.; Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest 1093, Hungary.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Huang+L%22">Huang L</searchLink>; Shandong University, Jinan, Licheng District 250100, China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22İriş+D%22">İriş D</searchLink>; Department of Economics, Sogang University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Kiss+HJ%22">Kiss HJ</searchLink>; ELTE Centre for Economic and Regional Studies, Budapest 1097, Hungary.; Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest 1093, Hungary.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Koch+J%22">Koch J</searchLink>; Economics Department at Lund University School of Economics and Management, Lund 223 63, Sweden.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Kovářík+J%22">Kovářík J</searchLink>; Departamento de Análisis Económico, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao 48015, Spain.; Faculty of Economics, University of West Bohemia, Plzeň 306 14, Czech Republic.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Kwarteng+OKB%22">Kwarteng OKB</searchLink>; Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra GA-489-1402, Ghana.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Lange+A%22">Lange A</searchLink>; Department of Economics, Faculty of Business, Economics and Social Sciences of the University of Hamburg, Hamburg 20146, Germany.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Leites+M%22">Leites M</searchLink>; Universidad de la República de Uruguay, Montevideo 11200, Uruguay.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Leung+TH%22">Leung TH</searchLink>; University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Lim+W%22">Lim W</searchLink>; The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Morren+M%22">Morren M</searchLink>; Department of Marketing, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081 HV, Netherlands.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Nockur+L%22">Nockur L</searchLink>; Department of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Okyere+CY%22">Okyere CY</searchLink>; Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra GA-489-1402, Ghana.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Oudah+M%22">Oudah M</searchLink>; Division of Social Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi PO Box 129188, United Arab Emirates.; Center for Behavioral Institutional Design, New York University Abu Dhabi Research Institute, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi PO Box 129188, United Arab Emirates.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Ozkes+AI%22">Ozkes AI</searchLink>; SKEMA Business School, Groupe de Recherche en Droit, Économie et Gestion, Université Côte d'Azur, Lille 59777, France.; 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Department of Applied Economic Analysis, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas 35017, Spain.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Ashraf+MS%22">Ashraf MS</searchLink>; School of Tourism Management, Hengxing University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, Shandong 266100, China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Sanjaya+MR%22">Sanjaya MR</searchLink>; Universitas Gadjah Mada, Kabupaten Sleman, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Schwaiger+R%22">Schwaiger R</searchLink>; Department of Banking and Finance, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Sene+O%22">Sene O</searchLink>; Alioune Diop University of Bambey, Bambey BP 16617, Senegal.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Song+F%22">Song F</searchLink>; Ted Rogers School of Management, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Spycher+S%22">Spycher S</searchLink>; Department of Management, Technology, and Economics, ETH Zurich, Zürich 8092, Switzerland.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Staněk+R%22">Staněk R</searchLink>; Faculty of Economics and Administration, Masaryk University, Brno 601 77, Czechia.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Tanchingco+N%22">Tanchingco N</searchLink>; John Gokongwei School of Management, Ateneo de Manila University, Metro Manila 1108, Philippines.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Tavoni+A%22">Tavoni A</searchLink>; Department of Economics, University of Bologna, Bologna 40126, Italy.; Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, London School of Economics, London WC2A 2AE, United Kingdom.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Te+Velde+V%22">Te Velde V</searchLink>; School of Economics, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Vázquez-De+Francisco+MJ%22">Vázquez-De Francisco MJ</searchLink>; Fundación ETEA-Development Institute of Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Córdoba 14004, Spain.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Visser+M%22">Visser M</searchLink>; University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7700, South Africa.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Wang+JT%22">Wang JT</searchLink>; Department of Economics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.; Taiwan Social Resilience Research Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Wang+W%22">Wang W</searchLink>; School of Information, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Weng+WC%22">Weng WC</searchLink>; Department of Economics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.; Taiwan Social Resilience Research Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Werner+K%22">Werner K</searchLink>; Department of Economics, University of Cologne, Cologne D-50937, Germany.; School of Business, Economics, and Information Systems, University of Passau, Passau D-94032, Germany.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Wijayanti+A%22">Wijayanti A</searchLink>; Universitas Gadjah Mada, Kabupaten Sleman, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Winkler+R%22">Winkler R</searchLink>; Department of Economics and Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, Bern CH-3012, Switzerland.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Wooders+J%22">Wooders J</searchLink>; Division of Social Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi PO Box 129188, United Arab Emirates.; Center for Behavioral Institutional Design, New York University Abu Dhabi Research Institute, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi PO Box 129188, United Arab Emirates.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Ying+L%22">Ying L</searchLink>; Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Zhen+W%22">Zhen W</searchLink>; Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Hills+T%22">Hills T</searchLink>; Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom.
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          Dates:
            – D: 24
              M: 03
              Text: 2026 Mar 24
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1091-6490
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 123
            – Type: issue
              Value: 12
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
              Type: main
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