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A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Feedback Timing on Learning Outcomes in Computer-Assisted Learning.

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Title: A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Feedback Timing on Learning Outcomes in Computer-Assisted Learning.
Authors: Kandemir, Erva Nihan (AUTHOR), Esposito, Emanuele (AUTHOR), Gurgand, Lilas (AUTHOR), Ramus, Franck (AUTHOR)
Source: Educational Psychology Review. 1/26/2026, Vol. 38 Issue 1, p1-43. 43p.
Subjects: Computer assisted instruction, Educational outcomes, Educational attainment, Psychological techniques, Moderation (Statistics)
Abstract: Despite decades of research, the impact of feedback timing on learning outcomes remains debated. The most recent meta-analysis directly comparing immediate and delayed feedback was published in 1988, preceding the transformation of computer-assisted learning environments. This study reevaluates the effect of feedback timing on learning outcomes within computer-assisted learning environments. Three key aspects were examined: (a) the overall effectiveness of immediate versus delayed feedback, (b) the influence of varying definitions of feedback delay on learning outcomes, and (c) study characteristics and feedback features that may account for prior inconsistencies. A systematic meta-analysis was conducted on 51 studies published from 1988 to 2024, analyzing 160 effect sizes through meta-regression with robust variance estimation. Across the included studies, delays implemented in delayed feedback conditions ranged from 1 second to 7 days in time-based designs and from 1 to 60 intervening items in item-based designs. Results indicate that feedback timing does not significantly influence learning outcomes on average (, 95% CI [ , 0.13],). Substantial heterogeneity between studies suggests the effect is moderated by key factors. Moderator analyses reveal that educational level, learning domain, and response time constraints significantly influence feedback timing effectiveness, providing a partial explanation for inconsistencies across studies. Yet, partial confounding of moderators limits the ability to fully disentangle their individual contributions. These findings suggest that while feedback timing alone is not a decisive factor, its impact is context-dependent. Although approximately half of the effects involved multi-hour or 10-item delays, there were relatively few studies involving delays of one day or longer. As a result, the reviewed studies provide limited evidence concerning the common multi-day delays typical of many classroom settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Educational Psychology Review is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Database: Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection
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  Data: A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Feedback Timing on Learning Outcomes in Computer-Assisted Learning.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kandemir%2C+Erva+Nihan%22">Kandemir, Erva Nihan</searchLink> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Esposito%2C+Emanuele%22">Esposito, Emanuele</searchLink> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gurgand%2C+Lilas%22">Gurgand, Lilas</searchLink> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ramus%2C+Franck%22">Ramus, Franck</searchLink> (AUTHOR)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22Educational+Psychology+Review%22">Educational Psychology Review</searchLink>. 1/26/2026, Vol. 38 Issue 1, p1-43. 43p.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+assisted+instruction%22">Computer assisted instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+outcomes%22">Educational outcomes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+attainment%22">Educational attainment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychological+techniques%22">Psychological techniques</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Moderation+%28Statistics%29%22">Moderation (Statistics)</searchLink>
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  Data: Despite decades of research, the impact of feedback timing on learning outcomes remains debated. The most recent meta-analysis directly comparing immediate and delayed feedback was published in 1988, preceding the transformation of computer-assisted learning environments. This study reevaluates the effect of feedback timing on learning outcomes within computer-assisted learning environments. Three key aspects were examined: (a) the overall effectiveness of immediate versus delayed feedback, (b) the influence of varying definitions of feedback delay on learning outcomes, and (c) study characteristics and feedback features that may account for prior inconsistencies. A systematic meta-analysis was conducted on 51 studies published from 1988 to 2024, analyzing 160 effect sizes through meta-regression with robust variance estimation. Across the included studies, delays implemented in delayed feedback conditions ranged from 1 second to 7 days in time-based designs and from 1 to 60 intervening items in item-based designs. Results indicate that feedback timing does not significantly influence learning outcomes on average (, 95% CI [ , 0.13],). Substantial heterogeneity between studies suggests the effect is moderated by key factors. Moderator analyses reveal that educational level, learning domain, and response time constraints significantly influence feedback timing effectiveness, providing a partial explanation for inconsistencies across studies. Yet, partial confounding of moderators limits the ability to fully disentangle their individual contributions. These findings suggest that while feedback timing alone is not a decisive factor, its impact is context-dependent. Although approximately half of the effects involved multi-hour or 10-item delays, there were relatively few studies involving delays of one day or longer. As a result, the reviewed studies provide limited evidence concerning the common multi-day delays typical of many classroom settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
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  Data: <i>Copyright of Educational Psychology Review is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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