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Numerical simulation and theoretical modelling of the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine.

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Title: Numerical simulation and theoretical modelling of the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine.
Authors: Wang, Ji-Rui1 (AUTHOR), Tang, Kui1 (AUTHOR) tkui2014@sina.com, Wang, Jin-Xiang1 (AUTHOR) wjx@njust.edu.cn, Hao, Xu-Long1 (AUTHOR), Gu, Min-Hui1 (AUTHOR)
Source: International Journal of Impact Engineering. Apr2026, Vol. 210, pN.PAG-N.PAG. 1p.
Subjects: Ballistics, Bullets, Finite element method, Drag coefficient, Multi-degree of freedom, Angle of attack (Aerodynamics), Gelatin
Abstract: • A 3-DOF theoretical model for bullet penetration into gelatine was established. • The relationship between the drag coefficient and yaw angle is asymmetric. • Reducing the length, diameter or materials of the bullet can enhance its tumbling. Ballistic gelatine is extensively employed as a soft tissue simulant in wound ballistics research. To investigate the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine, an improved 3-DOF motion model describing the two directions translation and one direction rotation was established. Using high-fidelity Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations, validated against experimental data, the model effectively captured complex non-linear drag forces. A key finding indicates that due to the variant of the contact surface, the relationship between the translational drag coefficient and the yaw angle is intrinsically piecewise. Specifically, the Y-direction drag coefficient (C dY)-yaw angle (α) relationship exhibits asymmetry at about 90°, and can be divided into three distinct stages: increasing, decreasing, and stable. Furthermore, the ratio of the X-direction drag force generated by the Y-direction drag force to the Y-direction drag force (λ FY) can be divided into four linear stages, each of which passing through zero at 90° and 180°. Notably, the rotational drag coefficient does not need to be divided because the moment generated by the angular velocity is non-negligible. By comparing the 7.62 mm 57-N-231S bullet with its small-calibre variants, it was found that reducing the bullet length, calibre, or incorporating lighter materials promotes faster rotation, enhancing incapacitation performance through more efficient energy transfer and moving high-drag stages forward. This research provides valuable insights for optimising bullet design for enhanced wound ballistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
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Database: Engineering Source
Description
Abstract:• A 3-DOF theoretical model for bullet penetration into gelatine was established. • The relationship between the drag coefficient and yaw angle is asymmetric. • Reducing the length, diameter or materials of the bullet can enhance its tumbling. Ballistic gelatine is extensively employed as a soft tissue simulant in wound ballistics research. To investigate the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine, an improved 3-DOF motion model describing the two directions translation and one direction rotation was established. Using high-fidelity Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations, validated against experimental data, the model effectively captured complex non-linear drag forces. A key finding indicates that due to the variant of the contact surface, the relationship between the translational drag coefficient and the yaw angle is intrinsically piecewise. Specifically, the Y-direction drag coefficient (C dY)-yaw angle (α) relationship exhibits asymmetry at about 90°, and can be divided into three distinct stages: increasing, decreasing, and stable. Furthermore, the ratio of the X-direction drag force generated by the Y-direction drag force to the Y-direction drag force (λ FY) can be divided into four linear stages, each of which passing through zero at 90° and 180°. Notably, the rotational drag coefficient does not need to be divided because the moment generated by the angular velocity is non-negligible. By comparing the 7.62 mm 57-N-231S bullet with its small-calibre variants, it was found that reducing the bullet length, calibre, or incorporating lighter materials promotes faster rotation, enhancing incapacitation performance through more efficient energy transfer and moving high-drag stages forward. This research provides valuable insights for optimising bullet design for enhanced wound ballistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
ISSN:0734743X
DOI:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105594