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Numerical simulation and theoretical modelling of the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine.

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Title: Numerical simulation and theoretical modelling of the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine.
Authors: Wang, Ji-Rui1 (AUTHOR), Tang, Kui1 (AUTHOR) tkui2014@sina.com, Wang, Jin-Xiang1 (AUTHOR) wjx@njust.edu.cn, Hao, Xu-Long1 (AUTHOR), Gu, Min-Hui1 (AUTHOR)
Source: International Journal of Impact Engineering. Apr2026, Vol. 210, pN.PAG-N.PAG. 1p.
Subjects: Ballistics, Bullets, Finite element method, Drag coefficient, Multi-degree of freedom, Angle of attack (Aerodynamics), Gelatin
Abstract: • A 3-DOF theoretical model for bullet penetration into gelatine was established. • The relationship between the drag coefficient and yaw angle is asymmetric. • Reducing the length, diameter or materials of the bullet can enhance its tumbling. Ballistic gelatine is extensively employed as a soft tissue simulant in wound ballistics research. To investigate the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine, an improved 3-DOF motion model describing the two directions translation and one direction rotation was established. Using high-fidelity Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations, validated against experimental data, the model effectively captured complex non-linear drag forces. A key finding indicates that due to the variant of the contact surface, the relationship between the translational drag coefficient and the yaw angle is intrinsically piecewise. Specifically, the Y-direction drag coefficient (C dY)-yaw angle (α) relationship exhibits asymmetry at about 90°, and can be divided into three distinct stages: increasing, decreasing, and stable. Furthermore, the ratio of the X-direction drag force generated by the Y-direction drag force to the Y-direction drag force (λ FY) can be divided into four linear stages, each of which passing through zero at 90° and 180°. Notably, the rotational drag coefficient does not need to be divided because the moment generated by the angular velocity is non-negligible. By comparing the 7.62 mm 57-N-231S bullet with its small-calibre variants, it was found that reducing the bullet length, calibre, or incorporating lighter materials promotes faster rotation, enhancing incapacitation performance through more efficient energy transfer and moving high-drag stages forward. This research provides valuable insights for optimising bullet design for enhanced wound ballistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of International Journal of Impact Engineering is the property of Pergamon Press - An Imprint of Elsevier Science and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Database: Engineering Source
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Header DbId: egs
DbLabel: Engineering Source
An: 190573685
AccessLevel: 6
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Numerical simulation and theoretical modelling of the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wang%2C+Ji-Rui%22">Wang, Ji-Rui</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Tang%2C+Kui%22">Tang, Kui</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> tkui2014@sina.com</i><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wang%2C+Jin-Xiang%22">Wang, Jin-Xiang</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> wjx@njust.edu.cn</i><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hao%2C+Xu-Long%22">Hao, Xu-Long</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gu%2C+Min-Hui%22">Gu, Min-Hui</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22International+Journal+of+Impact+Engineering%22">International Journal of Impact Engineering</searchLink>. Apr2026, Vol. 210, pN.PAG-N.PAG. 1p.
– Name: Subject
  Label: Subjects
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ballistics%22">Ballistics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Bullets%22">Bullets</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Finite+element+method%22">Finite element method</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Drag+coefficient%22">Drag coefficient</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Multi-degree+of+freedom%22">Multi-degree of freedom</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Angle+of+attack+%28Aerodynamics%29%22">Angle of attack (Aerodynamics)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gelatin%22">Gelatin</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: • A 3-DOF theoretical model for bullet penetration into gelatine was established. • The relationship between the drag coefficient and yaw angle is asymmetric. • Reducing the length, diameter or materials of the bullet can enhance its tumbling. Ballistic gelatine is extensively employed as a soft tissue simulant in wound ballistics research. To investigate the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine, an improved 3-DOF motion model describing the two directions translation and one direction rotation was established. Using high-fidelity Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations, validated against experimental data, the model effectively captured complex non-linear drag forces. A key finding indicates that due to the variant of the contact surface, the relationship between the translational drag coefficient and the yaw angle is intrinsically piecewise. Specifically, the Y-direction drag coefficient (C dY)-yaw angle (α) relationship exhibits asymmetry at about 90°, and can be divided into three distinct stages: increasing, decreasing, and stable. Furthermore, the ratio of the X-direction drag force generated by the Y-direction drag force to the Y-direction drag force (λ FY) can be divided into four linear stages, each of which passing through zero at 90° and 180°. Notably, the rotational drag coefficient does not need to be divided because the moment generated by the angular velocity is non-negligible. By comparing the 7.62 mm 57-N-231S bullet with its small-calibre variants, it was found that reducing the bullet length, calibre, or incorporating lighter materials promotes faster rotation, enhancing incapacitation performance through more efficient energy transfer and moving high-drag stages forward. This research provides valuable insights for optimising bullet design for enhanced wound ballistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: AbstractSuppliedCopyright
  Label:
  Group: Ab
  Data: <i>Copyright of International Journal of Impact Engineering is the property of Pergamon Press - An Imprint of Elsevier Science and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2025.105594
    Languages:
      – Code: eng
        Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 1
        StartPage: N.PAG
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Ballistics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Bullets
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Finite element method
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Drag coefficient
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Multi-degree of freedom
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Angle of attack (Aerodynamics)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gelatin
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Numerical simulation and theoretical modelling of the penetration process of shape-stable rifle bullets into ballistic gelatine.
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Wang, Ji-Rui
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Tang, Kui
      – PersonEntity:
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            NameFull: Wang, Jin-Xiang
      – PersonEntity:
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            NameFull: Hao, Xu-Long
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          Name:
            NameFull: Gu, Min-Hui
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 04
              Text: Apr2026
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0734743X
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            – Type: volume
              Value: 210
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: International Journal of Impact Engineering
              Type: main
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