High-Resolution 3D Structural Documentation of the Saqqara Pyramids, Egypt, Using Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Integrated Geomatics Techniques for Heritage Preservation.
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| Title: | High-Resolution 3D Structural Documentation of the Saqqara Pyramids, Egypt, Using Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Integrated Geomatics Techniques for Heritage Preservation. |
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| Authors: | Elbshbeshi, Abdelhamid1 (AUTHOR), Mohamed, Abdelmonem1,2 (AUTHOR), Ibraheem, Ismael M.1,2 (AUTHOR) ismael.ibraheem@geo.uni-koeln.de |
| Source: | Remote Sensing. Apr2026, Vol. 18 Issue 8, p1138. 38p. |
| Subjects: | Pyramids, Digital twin, LIDAR, Deterioration of buildings, Geomatics, Historic preservation, Preservation of historic sites |
| Geographic Terms: | Saqqārah (Egypt), Egypt |
| Abstract: | Highlights: What are the main findings? Integrated Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS), GNSS, and Total Station techniques produced sub-centimeter georeferenced 3D models of the Djoser, Unas, Teti, and Userkaf pyramids, generating over 2.1 billion high-resolution points with registration errors below 4 mm. Quantitative analysis revealed major structural degradation, including height losses of ~53% (Unas), ~66% (Teti), and ~63% (Userkaf), and localized deformation up to 4.2 cm at Teti's southern flank. What are the implications of the main findings? The generated georeferenced digital twins establish an accurate baseline for long-term deformation monitoring, structural stability assessment, and climate-related risk evaluation at large archaeological sites. The integrated geomatics workflow provides a scalable and transferable framework for high-precision documentation and conservation planning of complex heritage structures worldwide. Accurate 3D documentation of large and complex structures is essential for long-term stability assessment, structural monitoring, and conservation planning, particularly for heritage sites exposed to environmental and anthropogenic threats. This study develops an integrated workflow combining Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS), Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), and Total Station geodetic control for large-scale, high-precision documentation. The approach was implemented at the Saqqara archaeological zone, a UNESCO World Heritage Site facing significant deterioration risks, to document four major pyramids: Djoser, Unas, Teti, and Userkaf. More than 2.1 billion georeferenced points were acquired from 16 scan positions with sub-centimeter registration errors and overall geometric accuracy better than ±1 cm. From these datasets, detailed mesh models, orthoimages, Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), contour maps, and 2D plans were derived. These enabled quantitative analyses of height loss and volumetric change, indicating severe structural degradation in Unas (~53%), Teti (~66%), and Userkaf (~63%), as well as localized deformations such as 4.2 cm displacement at Teti's south flank. The degradation results from environmental factors and anthropogenic influences. Beyond this case study, the workflow proves that integrated TLS documentation can be applied to large and complex structures, supporting deformation monitoring, stability assessment, and digital twin development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] |
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| Database: | Engineering Source |
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| Abstract: | Highlights: What are the main findings? Integrated Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS), GNSS, and Total Station techniques produced sub-centimeter georeferenced 3D models of the Djoser, Unas, Teti, and Userkaf pyramids, generating over 2.1 billion high-resolution points with registration errors below 4 mm. Quantitative analysis revealed major structural degradation, including height losses of ~53% (Unas), ~66% (Teti), and ~63% (Userkaf), and localized deformation up to 4.2 cm at Teti's southern flank. What are the implications of the main findings? The generated georeferenced digital twins establish an accurate baseline for long-term deformation monitoring, structural stability assessment, and climate-related risk evaluation at large archaeological sites. The integrated geomatics workflow provides a scalable and transferable framework for high-precision documentation and conservation planning of complex heritage structures worldwide. Accurate 3D documentation of large and complex structures is essential for long-term stability assessment, structural monitoring, and conservation planning, particularly for heritage sites exposed to environmental and anthropogenic threats. This study develops an integrated workflow combining Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS), Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), and Total Station geodetic control for large-scale, high-precision documentation. The approach was implemented at the Saqqara archaeological zone, a UNESCO World Heritage Site facing significant deterioration risks, to document four major pyramids: Djoser, Unas, Teti, and Userkaf. More than 2.1 billion georeferenced points were acquired from 16 scan positions with sub-centimeter registration errors and overall geometric accuracy better than ±1 cm. From these datasets, detailed mesh models, orthoimages, Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), contour maps, and 2D plans were derived. These enabled quantitative analyses of height loss and volumetric change, indicating severe structural degradation in Unas (~53%), Teti (~66%), and Userkaf (~63%), as well as localized deformations such as 4.2 cm displacement at Teti's south flank. The degradation results from environmental factors and anthropogenic influences. Beyond this case study, the workflow proves that integrated TLS documentation can be applied to large and complex structures, supporting deformation monitoring, stability assessment, and digital twin development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] |
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| ISSN: | 20724292 |
| DOI: | 10.3390/rs18081138 |
