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The Unfinished Nature of Rights-Informed HIV- and AIDS-Related Education: An Analysis of Three School-Based Initiatives

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Title: The Unfinished Nature of Rights-Informed HIV- and AIDS-Related Education: An Analysis of Three School-Based Initiatives
Language: English
Authors: Miedema, Esther, Maxwell, Claire, Aggleton, Peter
Source: Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and Learning. 2015 15(1):78-92.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2015
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), Health Education, Sex Education, Prevention, Civil Rights, Foreign Countries, Language Usage, Program Descriptions, Accountability, Empowerment
Geographic Terms: Brazil, Namibia, South Africa
DOI: 10.1080/14681811.2014.960075
ISSN: 1468-1811
Abstract: Over the past 25 years, there has been growing investment in concepts of rights in the areas of HIV prevention, care and treatment, including HIV- and AIDS-related education delivered in schools. Despite this increasing commitment to the notion of rights, few efforts appear to have been made to understand the varying conceptions of rights that underpin different kinds of initiatives. Engaging with a multi-disciplinary body of literature on the issue of rights, and through a focus on three rights-informed HIV- and AIDS-related initiatives, this paper seeks to address this gap in the current literature. In so doing, it also examines a central tension within human rights discourse, namely between the construal of rights as shared and universally applicable to all human beings, while being created in and limited by the location in which they were elaborated, as well as by the language used to formulate them. More explicit engagement with the diversity of approaches made possible through a commitment to human rights may facilitate forms of HIV- and AIDS-related education that are more meaningful to young people.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 83
Entry Date: 2014
Accession Number: EJ1046049
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0099546016;bf401jan.15;2019Mar28.12:58;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0099546016-1">The unfinished nature of rights-informed HIV- and AIDS-related education: an analysis of three school-based initiatives. </title> <p>Over the past 25 years, there has been growing investment in concepts of rights in the areas of HIV prevention, care and treatment, including HIV- and AIDS-related education delivered in schools. Despite this increasing commitment to the notion of rights, few efforts appear to have been made to understand the varying conceptions of rights that underpin different kinds of initiatives. Engaging with a multi-disciplinary body of literature on the issue of rights, and through a focus on three rights-informed HIV- and AIDS-related initiatives, this paper seeks to address this gap in the current literature. In so doing, it also examines a central tension within human rights discourse, namely between the construal of rights as shared and universally applicable to all human beings, while being created in and limited by the location in which they were elaborated, as well as by the language used to formulate them. More explicit engagement with the diversity of approaches made possible through a commitment to human rights may facilitate forms of HIV- and AIDS-related education that are more meaningful to young people.</p> <p>Keywords: education; human rights; rights discourse; young people; HIV/AIDS</p> <p>We need [human rights] and they are in need, for there is always [...] a falling short [...]; human rights are never sufficient. Which alone suffices to remind us that they are not natural. They have a history – one that is recent, complex, and unfinished.... (Derrida 2003 cited in Balfour and Cadava [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref1">5</reflink>], 278–279)</p> <hd id="AN0099546016-2">Introduction</hd> <p>In current debate about sex, sexuality and health, there are few notions so frequently deployed as those of human rights (Aggleton and Campbell [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref2">3</reflink>]; Berkman et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref3">8</reflink>]; Corrêa, Petchesky, and Parker [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref4">16</reflink>]). The broad appeal of the concept of rights resides in the idea that every person, by virtue of her/his humanity, has certain basic rights that others should respect and protect (Donnelly [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref5">19</reflink>]; Sen [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref6">58</reflink>]). As Sen ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref7">59</reflink>]) points out, proclamations of human rights may be interpreted as 'strong ethical pronouncements as to what <emph>should</emph> be done' (357–358, emphasis in original; see also Morsink [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref8">46</reflink>]). Thus, while they may lead to new legislation and the creation of institutions to enforce the realisation of human rights, such as the European Court of Human Rights (Cumper [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref9">18</reflink>]; OHCHR [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref10">50</reflink>]), human rights are not established legal rights, their value to an important degree residing in their provision of 'a common moral code to each member of the human community' (Cassin 1972 quoted in Morsink [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref11">46</reflink>], 57).</p> <p>The present-day system of human rights is the product of several centuries of reflection and activism geared towards safeguarding human dignity and equality around the world (Donnelly [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref12">19</reflink>]; Bovens [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref13">10</reflink>]; Sen [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref14">58</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref15">59</reflink>]), but the origins of contemporary rights <emph>discourse</emph> can generally be traced to political and philosophical treatises developed during the French Revolution (Eide [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref16">21</reflink>]; Balfour and Cadava [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref17">5</reflink>]). As Balfour and Cadava ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref18">5</reflink>], 282) observe, '[t]he very fact of this genealogy – or that there is a genealogy [of human rights] at all' – is illustrative of a critical paradox of human rights, namely the tension between their universalism and particularism. Thus, while human rights are, <emph>in principle</emph>, 'an affair of universals', in practice they are bound to particular times and places in 'their articulations, their codifications and their applications' (Balfour and Cadava [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref19">5</reflink>], 282). Therefore, although the appeal of human rights is closely related to their construal as <emph>necessarily</emph> common and applicable to all human beings (i.e. in a sense, 'natural'), they are, to build on Derrida, created in, and delimited by, the time and place in which they were elaborated, as well as the language(s) used to formulate them (Balfour and Cadava [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref20">5</reflink>]; see also Stammers [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref21">60</reflink>]).</p> <p>Within the field of international development, there has been a growing investment in what are often referred to as (human) rights-based approaches. Similarly, HIV and AIDS prevention, care and treatment efforts and, within this broader field, school-based HIV- and AIDS-related education are also increasingly designed from a rights-informed perspective (e.g. for the latter, see UNICEF [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref22">71</reflink>]; UNESCO [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref23">67</reflink>]). According to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref24">49</reflink>]), a human rights-based approach (HRBA) offers 'a conceptual framework for the process of human development that is normatively based on international human rights standards and operationally directed to promoting and protecting human rights' (<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref25">15</reflink>). Rights-based approaches are sometimes contrasted with 'needs-based' models, which approach development issues as technical problems that can be tackled largely from 'outside the political arena' (Chapman et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref26">12</reflink>], 7; Jones [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref27">31</reflink>]). As Chapman et al. ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref28">12</reflink>], 7) note, a rights-informed approach to development, by way of contrast, is conceptualised as an inherently political approach, dedicating particular attention to struggle, voice and power.</p> <p>The increasing emphasis on the importance of human rights-based approaches to development has been paralleled by a growth in publications on the notion of rights and (human) rights-based approaches, and how these terms may be understood and applied (e.g. Banik [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref29">6</reflink>]; Cornwall and Nyamu-Musembi [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref30">15</reflink>]; Pettit and Wheeler [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref31">53</reflink>]; O'Byrne [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref32">48</reflink>]). Scholars have drawn attention to what may be understood as one of the central difficulties of rights-informed work alluded to above: namely, the tension between the idea of the universality of rights and ideas as to what counts as human in a given time and place. Authors have also critiqued the underlying liberal discourse of rights, whereby the idea of the universal  −  neutral – self is predicated on gendered, racist and 'classist' notions of citizenship and, thus, is potentially exclusionary of those (non-)citizens who do not conform to this norm (Young [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref33">82</reflink>]; Olssen [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref34">51</reflink>]; Corrêa, Petchesky, and Parker [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref35">16</reflink>]).</p> <p>With regard to rights-informed HIV- and AIDS-related education, research has examined the complexities of realising such education in particular contexts, such as Uganda (e.g. Iyer and Aggleton [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref36">30</reflink>]; Rijsdijk et al. [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref37">56</reflink>]) and in relation to specific groups of young people, such as those with intellectual disabilities (e.g. Gougeon [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref38">25</reflink>]). In addition, studies have included investigations into the potential positive impact of national human rights legislation on the provision of school-based sexuality education (see e.g. Cumper [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref39">18</reflink>]). Despite growing engagement with the subject of rights-informed work, hitherto the particular conceptual underpinnings of rights-informed HIV-related education have not been considered in enough depth. Specifically, little work has sought to identify various possible interpretations of the notion of rights in HIV-related education.</p> <p>We would argue that such conceptual clarification is critical to efforts to meaningfully design, compare and evaluate this form of education. As this paper shows, careful examination of a broad body of literature on the subject of rights and examples of rights-informed school-based HIV- and AIDS-related education suggest that it may be useful to draw a distinction between a formal 'accountability' approach in which the focus is on the fulfilment of rights, entitlements and obligations and a more informal approach to rights, which stresses principles of 'inclusion and empowerment'. We suggest that the kind of conceptual analysis offered within the paper highlights the ways in which rights remain 'unfinished' through programmes purporting to be driven by such goals. Understanding the consequences of each of these rather different approaches to rights-based HIV-related education should support efforts to create more effective and meaningful HIV-related educational initiatives for young people.</p> <p>Our paper first details the methodological approach used to develop the conceptual framework which then later informs our analysis of three different instances of HIV- and AIDS-related education. In outlining the conceptual framework, we provide a brief overview of (human) rights theory, focusing, in particular, on how this has been drawn upon to support understandings of, and develop (educational) responses to, the HIV epidemic. Building on a multidisciplinary body of literature, the subsequent section clarifies what, in principle, the premises of the two subtypes of rights-informed approaches to HIV-related education would need to be, that is, the formal accountability approach and the more informal inclusion and empowerment model. This conceptual prism is then used to analyse programme materials and background documentation of three different HIV-related education initiatives. Through our analysis, we explore the ways in which critical concepts appear to have been applied to the programme materials, and elucidate some of the possible tensions present in programmes' engagement with rights-informed approaches.</p> <hd id="AN0099546016-3">Methods and procedure</hd> <p>This paper builds on a discussion initiated in Miedema, Maxwell, and Aggleton ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>]), which outlined a tripartite framework for understanding HIV- and AIDS-related education. The framework was developed following a secondary source review conducted between January 2008 and June 2009, of school-based HIV-related education initiatives. Over 60 HIV- and AIDS-related education programmes were identified during a search of a range of HIV-related education and academic databases. Having applied a number of key criteria (e.g. sufficient information programme material had to be available to understand the aims, modes of delivery and some of the content of programmes), this initial sample was reduced to 10 well-defined initiatives. Through an iterative process of content analysis, identifying and refining of substantive categories, we clustered programmes according to regularly occurring terms. This process led to the identification of three overarching approaches to school-based HIV- and AIDS-related education: those building on science, conservative moral values and/or notions of rights.</p> <p>Clustering was carried out according to what was perceived to be a programme's <emph>primary</emph> focus. The reason for presenting the approaches as distinct related to the main purpose of the framework, namely to serve as a heuristic tool for the examination of ideas and assumptions underlying HIV-related education initiatives. However, it is important to note that, in practice, the three approaches are not necessarily mutually exclusive and different programmes may be positioned as illustrative of more than one approach (for a more detailed discussion of the methodology, see Miedema, Maxwell, and Aggleton [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref41">40</reflink>]).</p> <p>Of the 10 programmes included in the final sample, three were identified as grounded primarily in notions of rights (see Table 1). Common characteristics across the programme literatures included the use of terms such as 'rights', 'participation', 'choice' and 'empowerment'.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref42">1</reflink>] Furthermore, documents pertaining to these initiatives presented an awareness of rights as a means of reducing young people's vulnerability to HIV infection and the impact of AIDS. Another commonality across the three initiatives was that they built on a conceptualisation of young women and men as social actors – as opposed to, for example, 'target groups', which was a more common term in the scientifically informed public health programmes.</p> <p>Table 1 Three examples of rights-informed HIV- and AIDS-related education.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td><italic>My Future is My Choice (MFMC), Namibia</italic></td></tr><tr><td>MFMC was developed and piloted by the Namibian MoE (Ministry of Education) and UNICEF in 1996, scaled up in 1998, and in 2003, it was declared to be an official extra-curricular life skills programme for secondary schools (Chin and Nakaambo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr13">2004</xref>). MFMC was designed to reach in- and out-of-school young people between 15 and 25 years. Its primary goal is 'to give young people the information and life skills they need to make decisions about their future' (Government of Namibia and UNICEF <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr26">1999</xref>, 3), which includes 'provid[ing] young people the skills they require to make well-informed choices about their sexual behaviour' (UNICEF <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr72">2004b</xref>). MFMC is taught by peer educators, typically secondary school graduates. Learners wishing to take part in the sessions need to request their parents' or caregivers' written consent.</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Today's Choices, South Africa</italic></td></tr><tr><td>In 2003, the Dutch NGO World Population Foundation (WPF) and Stellenbosch University (SU) developed the Today's Choices initiative for young people between 15 and 24 years (WPF <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr79">2007</xref>). It was designed to provide young people with tools 'to make informed decisions about, and enjoy their sexuality', as well as contribute to the prevention of 'sexual health problems by promoting safer sexual behaviour' (SU and WPF <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr61">2005</xref>, 2). Following a pilot, Today's Choices was integrated into the compulsory, teacher-led 'Life Orientation Curriculum' for the final non-statutory years of formal education in Western and Eastern Cape, and Kwazulu-Natal in 2005 (SU and WPF <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr61">2005</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Saúde e Prevenção nas Escolas (Health and Prevention in Schools), Brazil</italic></td></tr><tr><td>In 2003, the Brazilian Ministry of Health (MoH) and Ministry of Education (MoE) launched the school-based, teacher-led <italic>Saúde e Prevenção nas Escolas</italic> initiative with United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) support. The programme is geared to young people between 13 and 19 years attending public secondary schools (MoH <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr43">2008</xref>). The main goal of the project is to promote young people's sexual and reproductive health and rights in order to reduce their vulnerability to sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV, and lowering levels of school absence due to unplanned pregnancy. In addition, the project aims to encourage young people to take part in the design and implementation of public policies relating to STIs and HIV prevention (MoH <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr43">2008</xref>). Project schools are encouraged to strengthen ties with local health services and local Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), promote HIV testing among learners and provide condoms. In 2008, the initiative was implemented in schools in more than 400 municipalities (of 5600) and 26 states (of 27) (UNESCO <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr66">2008</xref>).</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Careful examination of the terms used in the three rights-informed HIV-related education programmes and by the organisations responsible for their design and delivery, suggested an important theoretical difference between programmes. This pointed to two broad understandings of the notion of rights driving the initiatives. The first focused on formally recognised human rights, the entitlements of rights-holders and responsibilities of duty-bearers. The second understanding of rights was less formalistic, focusing on inclusion, empowerment, citizenship and, in some instances, sexual rights. Taking the different terminologies used in the programme materials, we now return to the literature on the subject of rights to further review the key concepts drawn upon by these two sub-approaches to rights-informed HIV- and AIDS-related education.</p> <hd id="AN0099546016-4">Human rights, HIV and AIDS, and education</hd> <p>Awareness of the significance of human rights in efforts to address HIV and AIDS dates to the beginning of the epidemic, but formal recognition only came in 1987 when the World Health Organization (WHO) explicitly acknowledged human rights protection as central to an effective response to HIV (Mann [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref43">38</reflink>]; Gruskin and Tarantola [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref44">27</reflink>]). This overt acknowledgement of the significance of human rights was, at least in part, motivated by growing moral concern about the various forms of stigma and discrimination faced by people living with HIV and AIDS. Human rights protection was, furthermore, considered a critical element of good public health practice in that discrimination towards people living with HIV was seen to potentially (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref45">1</reflink>) negatively impact on their access to critical services and care, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref46">2</reflink>) discourage people at risk of HIV infection from seeking HIV-related information, testing and counselling (Mann [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref47">38</reflink>]; Seidel [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref48">57</reflink>]; Gruskin and Tarantola [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref49">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Over the years, awareness has grown of the various ways in which human rights violations – particularly when these intersect with other structural inequalities such as gender, sexuality and socio-economic status – shape (young) people's risk and vulnerability to HIV (Aggleton and Campbell [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref50">3</reflink>]; Corrêa, Petchesky, and Parker [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref51">16</reflink>]). This growing awareness has also contributed to a broadening of the understanding of the notion of human rights protection. Specifically, discourse on rights has moved from a more restricted focus on protecting the rights of people living with HIV to one emphasising the progressive realisation of <emph>universal</emph> human rights (Ngwena [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref52">47</reflink>]; Tarantola [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref53">62</reflink>]). In consequence, there has been a growing emphasis on human rights in responses to HIV and AIDS, illustrated by active involvement of sex workers in the design and delivery of efforts to reduce sex worker vulnerability to HIV and AIDS (see e.g. Chacham et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref54">11</reflink>]), attempts to create 'youth friendly' sexual and reproductive health services (e.g. Pathfinder [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref55">52</reflink>]), as well as creating broad <emph>public</emph> support for access of people living with HIV to affordable medication (see e.g. Jones [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref56">31</reflink>]).</p> <p>In important ways, HIV- and AIDS-related education also reflects the broadening of human rights discourses. Akin to definitions of 'youth friendly' services, for example, effective HIV-related education informed by rights is increasingly defined in terms of the extent to which it is supportive of young people's abilities to claim rights (e.g. UNICEF [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref57">71</reflink>]; UNESCO [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref58">67</reflink>]). Common to these various instances of rights-based work is the pivotal importance attached to principles such as participation and inclusion (African Youth Alliance (AYA)/Pathfinder [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref59">4</reflink>]; Wood et al. [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref60">78</reflink>]; WHO [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref61">77</reflink>]). However, as the current paper will elucidate, it is precisely in the application of these principles that some of the more problematic dimensions of attaining human rights become particularly evident, highlighting the aptness of Derrida's observation that human rights are not always sufficient.</p> <p>Understandings of rights differed widely across the initiatives selected for the study, making it not only difficult to draw comparisons, but also to understand what the 'falling short' consists of, which Derrida refers to in the opening quote of the paper. Thus, while growing engagement with notions of rights in HIV prevention, care and treatment efforts is commendable, considerable obstacles remain to achieving a full(er) realisation of young people's rights.</p> <hd id="AN0099546016-5">Two contrasting understandings of rights</hd> <p>Our contention here is that starting from a more sophisticated understanding of rights-informed approaches to HIV- and AIDS-related education will help differentiate between the many programmes which claim to be inspired by such values currently facilitated across the world. In understanding the key distinctions between these two types of initiatives, we can also begin to comprehend the challenges in meeting the objectives of these programmes and how they might be overcome.</p> <hd id="AN0099546016-6">Accountability approaches to rights</hd> <p>HIV-related education grounded in an accountability approach to rights can best be understood as attempting to support the fulfilment of rights as they are enshrined in formally recognised treaties, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948 (UN [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref62">63</reflink>]). In theory, education building on a formal approach to rights should be underpinned by principles derived from these universal declarations, such as those of universality, participation and accountability (UN [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>]; UNAIDS [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref64">64</reflink>]; OHCHR [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref65">50</reflink>]). Both the academic literature and documents published by international agencies suggest, furthermore, that what might be defined as an accountability interpretation of rights is structured around notions of entitlements of individual rights-holders and responsibilities of duty-bearers (see e.g. Kymlicka [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref66">33</reflink>]; UNICEF [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref67">69</reflink>]; WPF [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref68">80</reflink>]).</p> <p>Building on authors such as Honderich ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref69">28</reflink>], 820), formally recognised rights need to be understood as claims, in the sense that they 'are correlative with duties' (see also Evans [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref70">22</reflink>]; Piron [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref71">54</reflink>]; Crawford [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref72">17</reflink>]). Donnelly ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref73">20</reflink>]), reflecting on the nature of this correlative duty, clarifies that if person A has a right to something (X) with respect to person B, 'it is more than simply desirable, good, or even right' that person A should enjoy X; s/he is 'entitled to it' (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref74">8</reflink>). Thus, should person B fail to meet her/his obligations with respect to person A's right to X, person B is, in effect, violating person A's rights. The notion of 'obligation' warrants further discussion. As the OHCHR ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref75">50</reflink>]) clarifies, by becoming parties to international treaties, a state assumes obligations under international law in three different ways, namely to respect, protect and fulfil human rights (see also UNFPA [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref76">68</reflink>]; Gibney and Skogly [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref77">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>The emphasis that is placed on the relationship between rights and duties in an accountability approach can be understood as implying a legal contract between duty-bearer and rights-holder (Kymlicka [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref78">33</reflink>]; Piron [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref79">54</reflink>]). Indeed, as the United Nations (UN) ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref80">63</reflink>], 2) clarifies with regard to non-observance: 'aggrieved rights-holders are entitled to institute proceedings [against States or other duty-bearers] for appropriate redress before a competent court or [...] in accordance with the rules and procedures provided by law'. Therefore, failure to meet obligations can, at least in theory, entail a duty-bearer being subjected to special claims and sanctions (UN [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref81">63</reflink>]; Donnelly [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref82">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>The first school-based HIV- and AIDS-related education initiative listed in Table 1 is the My Future is My Choice (MFMC) programme, which was implemented by the Ministries of Education (MoE) in Namibia and Mozambique with support from UNICEF. Of note here is the formal commitment UNICEF made to a human rights-based approach to programming in 1998, making it one of the first UN agencies to do so (UNICEF [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref83">69</reflink>]). A recent independent evaluation of UNICEF's understanding and implementation of human rights-based approaches to programming concluded that, at the global level, the agency has been a leader with regard to this style of work (UNICEF [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref84">73</reflink>], 49). The approach adopted by UNICEF may be understood as illustrative of a formal interpretation of rights in that (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref85">1</reflink>) its work is guided by the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref86">69</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref87">70</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref88">73</reflink>]), and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref89">2</reflink>) it strives to enable (young) people to claim their rights, for instance by developing their life skills through initiatives such as MFMC (GoN and UNICEF [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref90">26</reflink>], 1). Noteworthy too are references to the organisation's aim to build duty-bearers' capacity 'to meet their obligations to respect, protect and fulfil rights' (see e.g. UNICEF [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref91">69</reflink>], 1). UNICEF support to the Namibian MoE to deliver the MFMC initiative may be interpreted as illustrative of this intention.</p> <p>Another example of an agency that may be understood, at least in part, to have adopted an accountability understanding of rights in its work is the NGO World Population Fund (WPF). HIV-related education programmes such as Today's Choices, the organisation clarifies, were developed from a 'rights-based approach', here defined as one that is informed by human rights as laid down in UN treaties (WPF [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref92">80</reflink>]). The WPF rights-based approach is, furthermore, underpinned by key principles such as rights-holders' entitlement to participation in decision-making processes and non-discrimination (WPF and YI [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref93">81</reflink>]). Finally, according to WPF, operating from a rights-based approach implies supporting duty-bearers to meet their obligations (WPF [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref94">80</reflink>]).</p> <p>It is worth noting that, similar to other international agencies (e.g. see UN [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref95">63</reflink>]; UNAIDS [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref96">64</reflink>]), both UNICEF's and WPF's interpretation of the rights-duties relationship suggests a more general understanding thereof: failure by a state to meet its obligations, in this case to ensure young people receive information on HIV and AIDS, safer sex and condoms (UN Committee on the Rights of the Child [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref97">65</reflink>]), does not seem to mean these organisations will subject the state to the special claims and sanctions that Donnelly ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref98">20</reflink>]) refers to above, or support individuals to do so. This is not to assert that human rights are never used as a framework for action against a national government, only that it is not necessarily a role that (international) organisations working on rights-informed HIV-related education within a 'host' country readily take on. One exception would be a body such as the Committee on the Rights of the Child (e.g. country hearings during which sexual education is addressed, see UNOG [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref99">74</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref100">75</reflink>]), which has sought to take such legal action. In relation to HIV- and AIDS-related education, however, it appears that the idea of holding a duty-bearer to account remains somewhat abstract, arguably significantly weakening the impact that any such an approach can have.</p> <hd id="AN0099546016-7">Inclusion and empowerment approaches to rights</hd> <p>Programmes that we have defined as working more loosely with concepts of rights include those that focus on inclusion, social justice, empowerment and solidarity (see also Berkman et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref101">8</reflink>]; Piron [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref102">54</reflink>]; Corrêa, Petchesky, and Parker [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref103">16</reflink>]). Principles of citizenship are central to these alternative understandings of rights, referring both to the legal status of citizens of a (democratic) nation state and to a normative ideal, in the sense that 'the governed should be full and equal participants in the political process' (Honderich [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref104">28</reflink>], 142; Bohman [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref105">9</reflink>]; Kymlicka [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref106">33</reflink>]; Malta and Beyrer [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref107">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>Analysis of HIV- and AIDS-related education programmes suggests that initiatives that use this approach also tend to invoke notions of sexual rights in their work. The Brazilian initiative, for instance, dedicated considerable attention to sexual rights, and, albeit to a lesser degree, so did Today's Choices. According to Garcia and Parker ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref108">23</reflink>]), HIV has been a critical force in the global drive for sexual rights. Against the backdrop of the epidemic, the notion of sexual rights gained extra purchase in that it draws attention to the – often harmful – norms and values regarding gender and sexuality underpinning the spread and impact of HIV and AIDS. In addition, and especially salient to the topic of the current paper, the notion of sexual rights has highlighted the importance of engaging explicitly with issues such as sexual pleasure and diversity as part of HIV-related education (Ingham [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref109">29</reflink>]; Garcia and Parker [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref110">23</reflink>]; Lewis and Gordon [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref111">35</reflink>]; Corrêa, Petchesky, and Parker [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref112">16</reflink>]).</p> <p>As various scholars have observed, the emphasis on citizenship rights and, at times, sexual rights in current rights discourses tends to be linked to notions of empowerment and civil society mobilisation (Berkman et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref113">8</reflink>]; Garcia and Parker [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref114">23</reflink>]; Corrêa, Petchesky, and Parker [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref115">16</reflink>]). The primary objective here is to enable people to participate in the public sphere and to claim their rights, and through this, strengthen what might be defined as the 'social contract' between citizen and state (Kymlicka [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref116">33</reflink>]). As Piron ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref117">54</reflink>]) has pointed out, power relations and the political nature of rights may thus be understood as central to a less formal but nonetheless useful approach to rights (see also Malta and Beyrer [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref118">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>An inclusion and empowerment approach to rights can be understood as building on the view that a healthy – democratic – state depends 'not only on the justice of its basic institutions' (as is the main implication of the accountability approach), but also on 'the qualities and attitudes of its citizens' (Kymlicka [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref119">33</reflink>], 284–285). Citizenship is here understood as a 'positive' freedom, as a right <emph>and</emph> a duty for all, by extension, constituting a fundamental principle for social equality (Olssen [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref120">51</reflink>]; Milana [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref121">41</reflink>]). Broadly speaking, in HIV-related education, a focus on citizenship rights and responsibilities is likely to entail preparing young people for their role as active citizens and the balance of rights and duties that citizenship confers on them.</p> <p>Crucial to this category of rights-informed approaches is a recognition of the pluralistic character of society and the importance of a civil society that is capable of representing the various identities, needs and interests present therein (Olssen [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref122">51</reflink>]; Berkman et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref123">8</reflink>]; Malta and Beyrer [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref124">37</reflink>]). Within this framework, inclusion is a critical concept, and one that is understood as implying responsiveness to local priorities (Piron [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref125">54</reflink>]). Unlike programmes drawing on accountability understandings of rights, those grounded in inclusion and empowerment do not depend on international or regional systems to identify or ensure the enforcement of rights. In theory, therefore, programmes drawing on this latter approach to rights may have greater freedom to respond to local needs and promote rights at a more local level (Piron [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref126">54</reflink>]; Corrêa, Petchesky, and Parker [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref127">16</reflink>]). Such approaches may thus be understood as potentially more contextually informed.</p> <p>The final programme example presented in Table 1 is the Brazilian programme <emph>Saúde e Prevenção nas Escolas</emph> (Health and Prevention in Schools). Crucial to understanding the approach underpinning the programme are the broader political context in which the programme was implemented, and the conception of rights it is grounded within. To begin with, the Brazilian Constitution defines health as a '<emph>citizen's</emph> right' and as a duty of the state (MoH [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref128">43</reflink>], 42, emphasis added; Malta and Beyrer [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref129">37</reflink>]). Beyond this, the government not only regards health and HIV and AIDS as intimately linked to human rights but also to education, and for this reason identifies schools as important sites for the promotion of health and rights (MoH et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref130">45</reflink>]; MoH [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref131">43</reflink>]).</p> <p>In keeping with these principles, a central premise underpinning the Brazilian programme is a conception of health, including sexual health, as a fundamental human right (MoH et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref132">44</reflink>], 43). Effective health education is understood as that which addresses the political, social and personal factors that affect young people's vulnerability to unplanned pregnancy and STIs, and which promotes active citizenship (MoH et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref133">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref134">45</reflink>]). In this view, education should not only address the relation between sex, risk and reproduction, but also engage with sexual pleasure (MoH et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref135">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref136">45</reflink>]). The considerable attention paid to issues such as sexual orientation, sexual pleasure and young people's civic engagement suggests an inclusion and empowerment approach to rights is adopted within the programme.</p> <p>In closing, a key difference between these two kinds of rights-informed approaches may be understood in terms of the position held by rights-holders in realising their rights. The accountability approach to rights generally implies a formal, legalistic relationship between the individual – the rights-holder – and the primary duty-bearer, usually understood to be the state (UNFPA [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref137">68</reflink>]). Programmes of this type imply the need to work towards a situation in which the state is able to meet its obligations to rights-holders and where the necessary structures are in place for rights-holders to seek judicial recourse when and where necessary. An inclusion and empowerment approach to rights, on the other hand, places emphasis on rights-holders as citizens able both to exercise their political and social rights and to fulfil their citizenship responsibilities, through processes such as political participation (Wharf Higgins [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref138">76</reflink>]; Kymlicka [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref139">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>As noted, while the UDHR implies that states are bound to respect human rights regardless of citizenship, 'the legal relationship between an individual and a state remains a [...] prerequisite to the effective enjoyment and protection of the full range of human rights' (Adjami and Harrington [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref140">2</reflink>], 94; see also Lafont [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref141">34</reflink>]). Although the notion of citizenship, therefore, also constitutes a critical concept in the accountability approach to rights, it predominantly defines the legal parameters of the rights-holder, that is, to whom the state is accountable. On the other hand, in an inclusion and empowerment approach to rights, a far more active role is accorded to, and demanded of, the citizen. Here, 'the citizen' is not primarily a legal category but, at least in theory, a socio-political actor with the potential to engage with and reshape questions of rights, as well as democracy, civil action and the contents of citizenship itself (Miller et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref142">42</reflink>]; Pettit and Wheeler [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref143">53</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0099546016-8">Analysis of three rights-informed HIV- and AIDS-related education initiatives</hd> <p>As noted, both categories of HIV- and AIDS-related education initiatives informed by rights aim to develop young people's ability to claim and defend their rights. In practice, however, there is considerable variation in the extent to which the programmes appear to support young people in this regard. Both the Brazilian and South African initiatives devote considerable attention to making young people aware of their rights and to exploring possible ways of responding to the violation of particular rights. The Brazilian programme focuses, for example, on citizenship rights, whereas the Today's Choices initiative engages with rights in relation to the South African constitution as well as internationally recognised conventions. The MFMC programme, however, does not establish a clear link between the life skills it seeks to teach and the idea of (claiming) rights.</p> <p>Although an accountability approach to rights was defined as one building on the idea of the obligations of duty-bearers to respect, protect and fulfil rights, analysis of MFMC and Today's Choices reveals that neither explicitly outline in detail how they intend to build duty-holders' understanding and capacities to fulfil (young) people's rights. Rights-informed programmes utilising an inclusion and empowerment approach, on the other hand, more often refer to the responsibilities and potential of citizens – and their representatives in civil society – to promote and uphold democratic values (Kymlicka [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref144">33</reflink>]). In keeping with this broader philosophy, the <emph>Saúde e Prevenção nas Escolas</emph> programme addresses critical social issues such as violence against children and discrimination towards people in same-sex relationships, and seeks to build educators' capacity to teach in ways that are supportive of fundamental democratic values such as inclusiveness (Karstedt [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref145">32</reflink>]; Milana [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref146">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>The manner in which the notion of participation is interpreted in the programmes further illustrates possible difficulties in adopting a 'rights-based' approach. Participation is a central concept to both of the rights-informed approaches to HIV-related education. In theory, both categories of programmes seek to enable young people to participate in public life and (thereby) claim their rights (Kymlicka [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref147">33</reflink>]; UN [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref148">63</reflink>]; Piron [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref149">54</reflink>]). There is, however, no consistent view of participation across the three initiatives. In MFMC and Today's Choices, the notion of participation is interpreted in a somewhat restricted manner, namely in terms of young people's involvement in programme development and implementation. In theory, the Brazilian initiative conceptualises participation in a more far-reaching way, through engaging young people in the design of their school's overall education policy and encouraging them to participate in political processes. The extent to which young people are genuinely involved in any of the three initiatives or broader political processes, and what the actual quality of their participation is, could not be ascertained from the materials available for analysis.</p> <p>The concept of sexual pleasure similarly appears to be taken up in a somewhat restricted way. <emph>Saúde e Prevenção nas Escolas</emph> and Today's Choices explicitly acknowledge the right to sexual pleasure. This is a positive step forward from tendencies that concentrate largely on the negative aspects of sex and sexuality (Ingham [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref150">29</reflink>]). However, as noted by other authors, sexual pleasure can be variously understood and is furthermore shaped by, for example, the setting in which sexual encounters take place and people's sense of what it means to be a 'real' woman or man (Lewis and Gordon [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref151">35</reflink>]; see also Corrêa, Petchesky, and Parker [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref152">16</reflink>]). As Lewis and Gordon ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref153">35</reflink>]) convincingly show, many different reasons for having sex (e.g. to express love, have fun, to prove commitment or out of revenge) are likely to influence a person's idea of, and possibility to experience, pleasure.</p> <p>Addressing 'pleasure' in HIV-related education, therefore, involves engaging with a variety of interlinked issues, ranging from power differences in sexual relations to ideas regarding 'the workings of the sexual body' (Lewis and Gordon [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref154">35</reflink>], 115), all of which require addressing the normative, the emotional and the biological. Thus, the programmes' current engagement with the concept of a right to sexual pleasure (as well as the fundamental principle of participation) demonstrates a wider point – that these initiatives have not considered deeply enough the conceptual underpinnings of rights-informed work and the structures and relationships that need to be put in place to facilitate positive outcomes from a programme.</p> <hd id="AN0099546016-9">Closing</hd> <p>This paper has elucidated some of the diverse ways in which rights are conceptualised within different school-based HIV- and AIDS-related education programmes. We have outlined two particular approaches to rights-informed HIV-related education – an accountability approach and an inclusion and empowerment approach. We have shown that the first of these approaches to rights works from a more static, unitary definition of rights and the relationship between rights-holders and duty-bearers. The latter approach, in contrast, by emphasising notions of participation, voice, diversity and citizenship, appears to conceptualise rights in a more dynamic and contextual manner.</p> <p>The UNICEF MFMC programme works with the first of these definitions, while <emph>Saúde e Prevenção nas Escolas</emph> from Brazil does so taking the latter approach. The WPF–SU initiative Today's Choices appears concurrently to engage with both approaches, making explicit reference to internationally agreed-upon human rights conventions as well as engaging with citizenship rights within the South African context. One advantage of this third way of working may be to broaden the frame of reference young people can engage with and draw upon. Examining the degree to which rights were actually used as a framework for intervention revealed that the Brazilian programme seemed, at least on paper, to most closely meet the 'criteria' of one of the two types of rights-informed approaches developed here – the inclusion and empowerment understanding (but see Malta and Beyrer [[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref155">37</reflink>]] on current retrenchments in Brazil's rights-based response to the epidemic, including with respect to the programme discussed here).</p> <p>Detailed analysis of each of the initiatives illustrates that, in practice, both categories of rights-informed HIV-related education at times seem to struggle to move beyond the abstract use of concepts such as participation and involvement, as well as the very notion of rights itself (Cornwall and Nyamu-Musembi [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref156">14</reflink>]; Miller et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref157">42</reflink>]; Lyon [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref158">36</reflink>]). Such a failing suggests a lack of attentiveness to the lived realities of young women and men's lives and the difficulties they may experience in protecting and claiming their rights, even to the extent of fulfilling their right to express an opinion, not only to duty-bearers but also within intimate relationships. Building on a recent study of the linkages between economic insecurity, income-generation and sexual decision-making, Bell and Aggleton ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref159">7</reflink>]), for instance, discuss the importance of educational initiatives that not only support young people's access to sexual health services but also sustainable economic lives. Our analysis and engagement with this broader literature suggests that unless programme developers and providers engage critically with political and philosophical theory about rights-informed initiatives <emph>and</emph> bring this into dialogue with young people's lives as they are lived, programmes are unlikely to meet their objectives.</p> <p>Central to future attempts to develop rights-informed approaches to HIV-related education should be a questioning of the tendency in some theories of rights to draw on a liberal conceptualisation of 'man', as 'not defined by anything or anyone other than itself', and as essentially equal to all others, citizens and non-citizens alike (Young [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref160">82</reflink>], 229; see also Kymlicka [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref161">33</reflink>]; Mayo [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref162">39</reflink>]). This conception of universal man is taken to mean that rights can and should be applied in a 'difference-neutral' manner (Abowitz and Harnish [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref163">1</reflink>], 669), and thereby fails to recognise that people – and their experiences of health – are fundamentally structured by gender, sexuality, race, class as well as citizenship status. By failing to engage with the ways in which differing axes of vulnerability impact on young women's and men's understandings and experiences of health and health-related rights, and by in effect denying difference, all three initiatives discussed here may exclude those young people who do not conform to the implicit norm of the (rational, white, male) citizen upon which the idea of the universal self is predicated (Young [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref164">82</reflink>]; Olssen [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref165">51</reflink>]; Mayo [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref166">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>In contrast, we would suggest that by explicitly addressing different factors contributing to vulnerability and the ways in which (human) rights are 'less and other than universal' (Balfour and Cadava [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref167">5</reflink>], 282), HIV- and AIDS-related education programmes may be able to engage young people to participate in what has to be a continuing struggle for human dignity and human rights. As Zerilli ([<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref168">83</reflink>], 455) observes, no claim 'can account for ... the empirical reality of differences', and acknowledging this will allow people to act politically and test the limits of the human rights claims made. To ensure efforts to engage with difference do not simply reinforce and privilege white, heteronormative, middle-class cultures, schools and educators need to be willing to critically interrogate the 'wily ways' (Quinlivan et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref169">55</reflink>], 395) in which the normative logic of liberalism disregards as well as domesticates alternative subjectivities. By engaging with the complexities of rights, whether these be shaped by accountability or by inclusion and empowerment interpretations, HIV-related education may be able to move beyond some of its currently somewhat rhetorical forms to become more relevant to young people's embodied lives and relationships in specific socio-political and historical settings.</p> <p>This paper has addressed what might be considered a critical gap in current literature, namely the limited conceptual analysis of rights-informed HIV-related education efforts. We have brought together literatures on rights with that on HIV prevention with a view to offering a new – more nuanced – way of thinking about rights-informed HIV-related education. The distinction between the different understandings of rights provided here offers a series of conceptual tools that allows for a more careful development of programme objectives and methods of delivery. Significantly, programme developers and educators should appreciate the need to continuously deconstruct notions of rights and be aware of the exclusions implicit in many interpretations (Corrêa, Petchesky, and Parker [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref170">16</reflink>]). 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: The Unfinished Nature of Rights-Informed HIV- and AIDS-Related Education: An Analysis of Three School-Based Initiatives
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Miedema%2C+Esther%22">Miedema, Esther</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maxwell%2C+Claire%22">Maxwell, Claire</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Aggleton%2C+Peter%22">Aggleton, Peter</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Sex+Education%3A+Sexuality%2C+Society+and+Learning%22"><i>Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and Learning</i></searchLink>. 2015 15(1):78-92.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 15
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2015
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Acquired+Immunodeficiency+Syndrome+%28AIDS%29%22">Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Health+Education%22">Health Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sex+Education%22">Sex Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Prevention%22">Prevention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Civil+Rights%22">Civil Rights</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Language+Usage%22">Language Usage</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Descriptions%22">Program Descriptions</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Accountability%22">Accountability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Empowerment%22">Empowerment</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Brazil%22">Brazil</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Namibia%22">Namibia</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22South+Africa%22">South Africa</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/14681811.2014.960075
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1468-1811
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Over the past 25 years, there has been growing investment in concepts of rights in the areas of HIV prevention, care and treatment, including HIV- and AIDS-related education delivered in schools. Despite this increasing commitment to the notion of rights, few efforts appear to have been made to understand the varying conceptions of rights that underpin different kinds of initiatives. Engaging with a multi-disciplinary body of literature on the issue of rights, and through a focus on three rights-informed HIV- and AIDS-related initiatives, this paper seeks to address this gap in the current literature. In so doing, it also examines a central tension within human rights discourse, namely between the construal of rights as shared and universally applicable to all human beings, while being created in and limited by the location in which they were elaborated, as well as by the language used to formulate them. More explicit engagement with the diversity of approaches made possible through a commitment to human rights may facilitate forms of HIV- and AIDS-related education that are more meaningful to young people.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Ref
  Label: Number of References
  Group: RefInfo
  Data: 83
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2014
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1046049
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RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/14681811.2014.960075
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
        StartPage: 78
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Health Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sex Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Prevention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Civil Rights
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Language Usage
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Program Descriptions
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Accountability
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Empowerment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Brazil
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Namibia
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: South Africa
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The Unfinished Nature of Rights-Informed HIV- and AIDS-Related Education: An Analysis of Three School-Based Initiatives
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Miedema, Esther
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Maxwell, Claire
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Aggleton, Peter
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2015
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1468-1811
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 15
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and Learning
              Type: main
ResultId 1