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Establishing Parity in Middle and Secondary Co-Taught Classrooms

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Title: Establishing Parity in Middle and Secondary Co-Taught Classrooms
Language: English
Authors: Conderman, Greg, Liberty, Lisa
Source: Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas. 2018 91(6):222-228.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2018
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Middle Schools
Secondary Education
Junior High Schools
Descriptors: Middle School Teachers, Teacher Collaboration, Team Teaching, Classroom Environment, Regular and Special Education Relationship, Power Structure, Special Education Teachers, Teacher Role, Paraprofessional School Personnel, Educational Planning, Student Evaluation
DOI: 10.1080/00098655.2018.1524358
ISSN: 0009-8655
Abstract: Co-teaching is one approach for providing instruction in the general education classroom for students with and without disabilities. In this approach, two licensed teachers (usually one general educator and one special educator) teach a diverse group of students. Researchers have confirmed that often co-teachers do not experience parity; that is, they do not share, distribute, and implement tasks equally. Often, the special educator assumes the role of a paraprofessional rather than an equal. This article presents reasons for this lack of parity and provides specific ideas for honoring the expertise of both co-teachers.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1204506
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0134455975;clh01nov.18;2019Feb05.08:47;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0134455975-1">Establishing Parity in Middle and Secondary Co-taught Classrooms </title> <p>Co-teaching is one approach for providing instruction in the general education classroom for students with and without disabilities. In this approach, two licensed teachers (usually one general educator and one special educator) teach a diverse group of students. Researchers have confirmed that often co-teachers do not experience parity; that is, they do not share, distribute, and implement tasks equally. Often, the special educator assumes the role of a paraprofessional rather than an equal. This article presents reasons for this lack of parity and provides specific ideas for honoring the expertise of both co-teachers.</p> <p>Keywords: Middle school; classroom environment; learning environments</p> <p>Co-teachers Mitch (special educator) and Diane (general educator) followed several steps as they prepared for their 8th grade science class. During co-planning, Diane described the next generation science standards associated with the upcoming unit of study and ideas for lab activities, videos, and teacher-directed instruction. Mitch shared suggestions for differentiating instruction for learners with limited science background and students with accelerated knowledge and skills. Both teachers agreed on which co-teaching models they will use each day of their two-week unit. They also determined how they will assess student growth toward science-related outcomes. Both teachers feel that their skills and knowledge are being honored in the co-taught classroom.</p> <p>Down the hall, co-teachers Joni (special educator) and Weston (general educator) are teaching their social studies class on-the-fly. Generally, Weston takes the lead while Joni circulates. Occasionally, Joni reminds students about a due date or upcoming assignment, but her role is clearly and consistently that of a support teacher.</p> <p>As these examples illustrate, within any school district, and even within a particular school, co-teachers approach and fulfill various tasks of co-teaching very differently. Owing to the importance of each co-teacher having a purposeful and equal role in the co-taught classroom, yet having challenges with implementing this approach, an important consideration for all co-teaching teams is: How can we advance our practice, so both teachers have a meaningful and equitable role?</p> <hd id="AN0134455975-2">Reasons for co-teaching</hd> <p>Leaders in many school systems across the nation are offering more inclusive special education instructional options by placing students with disabilities in general education classrooms for larger portions of the day. Federal laws such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA, revised 2017) and the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015 require all students to have access to a rigorous general education curriculum that prepares them for college and careers (Young, Winn, and Reedy 2017). Consequently, many school administrators have adopted co-teaching as one approach to promote inclusive practices and to ensure that all students have appropriate academic challenge.</p> <p>Co-teaching is an instructional approach that provides specialized services to students within a general education classroom. Co-teaching includes two or more licensed professionals working together to jointly deliver instruction to a heterogeneous group of students within a shared instructional setting (Friend and Cook 2017). Co-teaching teams typically include a general education teacher and another licensed professional such as a special education teacher, speech/language pathologist, reading specialist, language specialist (such as a bilingual teacher), or, in some cases, another general education teacher (Conderman 2011). For example, a middle school social studies teacher may co-teach with a bilingual teacher during one class period because five students in that class are newcomers to the United States and only speak Chinese fluently.</p> <p>Co-teachers combine their expertise, share materials, and develop instructional goals in this environment (Friend and Cook 2017). Specifically, co-teachers engage in the purposeful tasks of co-planning, co-instructing, and co-assessing (Murawski 2008) in order to assume responsibility for all students and to differentiate instruction (Hedin and Conderman, 2018). Researchers have noted that when properly implemented, co-teaching is an effective way to deliver instruction to students with various learning needs (Huberman, Navo, and Parrish 2012). Further, all students in the classroom can benefit from two professionals who match instruction to students' optimal learning level (Scruggs, Mastropieri, and McDuffie 2007).</p> <p>Based on this co-teaching framework, most researchers agree that co-teaching does not involve a teacher and a classroom volunteer or paraprofessional. Even though paraprofessionals perform important classroom roles, they should not be asked to fulfill responsibilities reserved for a licensed professional (French 2003). First, both co-teachers should be licensed to ensure parity, or a sense of equality, in planning, instructional, and assessment tasks. Second, a team of two adults (even if both are licensed) would not be considered co-teachers only because they are simultaneously present in a classroom. In our opening scenario, for example, we read about Joni and Weston, who were both physically present in the social studies classroom. However, they are likely not both contributing in significant and equal ways. Third, co-teaching is not using the exact same instructional approach, materials, and assessments that were used before a co-teacher joined the classroom. Clearly, a co-taught classroom should reflect the contributions of two professionals as they blend their expertise to meet the needs of students with diverse learning needs within their unique classroom.</p> <hd id="AN0134455975-3">The issue of parity</hd> <p>An important assumption of the co-teaching approach is that of teacher parity; that is, each co-teacher contributing equally, but differently, to the learning environment. Both teachers must equally share planning, instructional, and assessment decision-making and both must have an equal leading presence in front of students. When one teacher consistently assumes the position of the support teacher by observing students or circulating around the room providing individual student support, then his or her role resembles that of a paraprofessional. Typically, the teacher assuming this support role is the special educator or special service provider (Scruggs, Mastropieri, and McDuffie 2007). Researchers have consistently concluded that the one teach, one support co-teaching model represents the majority of co-taught classrooms in our country, which may be one reason for disappointing student outcomes associated with co-teaching (Mastropieri et al. 2005). The issue of lack of parity is especially prevalent at middle and high school levels because special educators typically lack specialized content knowledge (McKenzie 2009) which often results in them assuming, at least temporarily, an assistive role. When co-teachers do not experience parity, that is, when they consistently serve as an assistant, several negative consequences often result. Some of these include:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> The general educator may resent the co-teacher if he or she is not contributing equally to critical classroom-related tasks;</item> <p></p> <item> The special educator's expertise in differentiating instruction and designing individualized instruction and behavior management approaches is not being honored;</item> <p></p> <item> Administrators, students, and parents may wonder why two licensed teachers are present in the classroom;</item> <p></p> <item> Parents may question the value of having their child assigned to a co-taught classroom and question whether their child's Individualized Educational Program (IEP) will be met;</item> <p></p> <item> Student academic, social, and/or behavioral outcomes may not reach optimal levels;</item> <p></p> <item> Parents and school board members may question the financial commitment of having two licensed teachers in the same classroom;</item> <p></p> <item> The special educator only assumes responsibility for students with disabilities; thus those students appear separated from their peers rather than fully included;</item> <p></p> <item> All students in the class view the co-teacher as an assistant and have different (often lowered) expectations for him or her.</item> </ulist> <p>Table 1 provides some reasons for the lack of co-teaching parity and possible approaches to address the issue.</p> <p>Reasons for lack of co-parity and possible solutions.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="2"><tbody><tr><td align="left">Causes for lack of co-parity</td><td align="center">Solutions for creating parity</td></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><td rowspan="4">Special educator or specialized co-teacher does not have content knowledge expertise (especially at secondary level)</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Allow specialized teacher to fulfill tasks that do not require extensive content knowledge such as leading review activities, pre-teaching vocabulary, and leading bell-ringer and closure activities</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="char"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Allow specialized teacher to occasionally teach mini-lessons (5-10 minutes) on skills within his/her expertise which produce student gains such as study skills, learning strategies, and self-regulation</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Assign specialized teacher to co-teach in his or her strongest subject area, when possible</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Provide content or skill-based support through workshops, staff development, online supports (i.e., Khan Academy)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Lack of planning time</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Suggest co-teachers use electronic systems for co-planning tasks</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Provide rotating substitute teachers to allow co-teachers planning time</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Relieve co-teachers of some before or after school responsibilities to provide common planning time</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Help co-teachers design class routines with clear role designation (i.e., every Friday the specialized teacher will lead the class in a 20-minute review game of skills presented during the week and then assign quiz)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Suggest co-teachers occasionally openly discuss the next day's plans with opportunities for student input (i.e., Class, do we need to review dividing fractions again tomorrow before our quiz? If so, do you have an idea for Ms. Green and myself as we plan tomorrow's lesson?)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Lack of knowledge about co-teaching purpose and co-teacher roles</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Provide staff development</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Provide co-teaching resources (i.e., articles, books, videos)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Allow co-teachers to observe/interview exemplary co-teachers in district</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Schedule regular administer-co-teacher meetings to monitor implementation</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Have co-teachers discuss how they can establish parity</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Differences in instructional beliefs</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Survey co-teachers regarding their classroom instructional and classroom management beliefs prior to matching or assigning them</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Have co-teachers develop their shared vision for co-teaching with clarified roles of each partner and periodic goals</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Have co-teachers discuss ways they can compromise on important decisions</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>As noted in Table 1, issues of parity require thoughtful approaches and administrator support. Time spent addressing these issues early is time well spent.</p> <hd id="AN0134455975-4">General ways to establish parity</hd> <p>In addition to the suggestions offered in Table 1, next we discuss general and specific ways co-teachers can establish and display parity. First, some general ways that co-teachers can establish and convey parity include:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Carefully plan how to convey to others (e.g., teachers and parents) that both teachers are equal partners. For example, both teachers' names should be on the board and printed in the course schedule. Similarly, both teachers should have access to student grades and all electronic student class monitoring systems.</item> <p></p> <item> Discuss use of classroom space and equipment. Both teachers need a desk or classroom storage space. Both teachers need to be able to access and use all classroom materials.</item> <p></p> <item> Agree on the use of inclusive language and parity signals such as saying "we" and "our class" and assuming responsibility for all students.</item> <p></p> <item> Communicate collaboratively with parents during IEP meetings and parent/teacher conferences. Communicating with parents should be a shared responsibility.</item> <p></p> <item> Share responsibility for grading student work and assigning report card grades.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0134455975-5">Specific ways to establish parity</hd> <p>More specifically, co-teachers can establish parity during each of the three co-teaching components which include co-planning, co-instructing, and co-assessing (Murawski 2008). Each component provides opportunities for both teachers to contribute in ways that purposefully support his or her role in the classroom, and will therefore, result in a more successful classroom experience for all students.</p> <hd id="AN0134455975-6">Co-planning</hd> <p>In co-planning, both teachers contribute ideas for an upcoming lesson or lessons based on his or her educational preparation, knowledge, and skills. If one teacher is not involved in co-planning, then he or she will clearly be at a disadvantage during lesson implementation. Face-to-face co-planning time is best due to the importance of ongoing teacher dialogue when discussing upcoming lessons. Therefore, school administrators should create time for co-teachers to engage in frequent face-to-face co-planning.</p> <p>Typically, general educators have knowledge about grade-level standards and curriculum, pacing guides, and large group management procedures. In contrast, special educators are skilled in adjusting the curriculum for individual students, making accommodations and modifications, and developing individualized management or motivational systems. Often, general educators begin the discussion during co-planning sessions. They start by sharing overall lesson goals and objectives, ideas for presenting the lesson, and required materials and assessments. Both co-teachers can then discuss and brainstorm possible challenges (i.e., student reading levels, student lack of pre-skills or background knowledge, or potential student behavioral challenges). The special educator can suggest ways to meet these challenges by noting ways to make content accessible, pre-teach necessary background knowledge or skills, and design adaptations for individual students (Howard and Potts 2009). Some questions co-teachers can mutually discuss during co-planning include:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> How, when, and how often will we co-plan?</item> <p></p> <item> What standards are associated with this lesson?</item> <p></p> <item> What knowledge or skills do students need in order to succeed in this lesson?</item> <p></p> <item> How can we differentiate the lesson for students possessing above and below grade level skills?</item> <p></p> <item> What is the lesson sequence or agenda?</item> <p></p> <item> How will each teacher take an active role in instruction?</item> <p></p> <item> How will we determine if students have met the lesson goal?</item> </ulist> <p>By the conclusion of the co-planning session, both co-teachers should agree upon which co-teaching models they will use and specific tasks each will assume in preparing for and implementing the lesson. Parity in co-planning helps ensure that each teacher will have a purposeful role and each student will be successful with the lesson.</p> <hd id="AN0134455975-7">Co-instructing</hd> <p>In co-instructing, co-teachers implement ideas from their co-planning session. Even if both teachers contributed equally in co-planning, it is still critical that both teachers display parity in front of students. If one co-teacher consistently assumes the support role (by observing or circulating and providing help to students, as needed), students will conclude that he or she is not an equal teacher.</p> <p>To portray instructional parity in front of students, co-teachers can use various co-teaching models. Friend and Cook (2017) described six models of co-teaching. These researchers emphasized that these models are most effective when (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) co-teachers purposefully select the model based on the instructional intent, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) co-teachers choose the approach based on how they will deliver instruction to meet the needs of individual students. These six approaches are described in Table 2 with examples and recommendations for establishing parity.</p> <p>Models of co-teaching.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="2"><tbody><tr><td align="left">Co-teaching model</td><td align="center">Definitions, recommendations for parity, and example</td></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">One teach, one observe</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Defined: One teacher presents instruction to the entire class while the second teacher gathers data on specific students or a small group of students or targeted behaviors.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Recommendation: Teachers exchange roles frequently to avoid one professional being perceived as the "assistant teacher."</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Example: In a middle school English class, the special educator teaches all students how to develop vocabulary study cards while the general educator gathers observational data on a student with attention issues.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Station teaching</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Defined: Teachers divide skills associated with the lesson or unit into two or more segments and present these skills in different locations (stations, centers) in the classroom where students complete targeted learning activities.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Recommendation: One teacher leads a station while the other teacher leads another station; thus, displaying parity. Groups rotate, and teachers repeat their information to new groups of students.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Example: In a high school history class, one teacher leads the station on the economy of the early West while the other leads a station on the economy of the early South. Students work independently at remaining stations.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Parallel teaching</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Defined: Each teacher delivers the same—or similar—instruction to one-half of a heterogeneous group of learners.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Recommendation: Each instructional group contains some students with disabilities.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Example: In a middle school math class, each co-teacher teaches his or her group the same lesson on determining area of geometric figures. Both teachers therefore fulfill a purposeful instructional role.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Alternative teaching</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Defined: One teacher provides instruction, assessment, or enrichment to a small, heterogeneous group of learners for a short time frame while the other teacher teaches the entire class.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Recommendation: To ensure parity, teachers exchange these roles, and teachers develop groups for various purposes.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Example: In a high school science class, the special educator briefly works with three students (who were absent) while the general educator completes a review activity with the remaining students.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Teaming</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Defined: Both teachers equally share instructional activities for the entire class by both being in front of the class.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Recommendation: Each teacher presents content and engages students, but each may present different ideas, strategies, or points of view.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Example: In a high school sociology class, one teacher takes one view on a timely topic while the other shares the opposing view as students learn contemporary events.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">One teach, one assist</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Defined: Both individuals are present, but one teacher takes the instructional lead while the other quietly provides support and assistance to students, often through over-the shoulder support.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Recommendation: Teachers exchange roles, so students do not perceive either teacher as the "assistant teacher."</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Example: In a high school government class, the general educator provides whole-group instruction while the special educator circulates to ensure students are taking notes and following along.</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Teachers can use various co-teaching models, even within the same lesson. For example, during a math lesson, co-teachers could begin with team teaching with both teachers welcoming students, sharing the agenda, and gathering and checking homework. Next, they could use parallel teaching with each teacher instructing a diverse group for an agreed upon time segment. Finally, they could conclude the lesson by using the one-teach, one observe model with one teacher leading an assessment activity in which students use small whiteboards to write and display their answers while the other teacher records which students make errors. This plan provides each teacher with a purposeful instructional role throughout the lesson. Implementing this plan would be challenging with only one teacher. In addition, co-teachers can tradeoff assuming lead roles, either within the same lesson or within sequential lessons. To illustrate, perhaps the general educator will always take the lead on Mondays and Tuesdays, and the special educator will always take the lead on Wednesdays and Thursdays. Alternating roles conveys to students that both teachers assume important responsibilities. Some questions co-teachers can mutually discuss regarding co-instructing include:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> How can we both assume roles that capitalize upon our strengths, backgrounds, and skills?</item> <p></p> <item> How will we monitor the use of our instructional approaches, so that we both assume leadership in the classroom?</item> <p></p> <item> How will we know, at any point in the lesson that we need to adjust our plan?</item> <p></p> <item> What methods of differentiating instruction can we use in this lesson?</item> <p></p> <item> How can we research effective instructional approaches for our subject?</item> </ulist> <p>In short, during co-instruction, each teacher should assume a purposeful role. Roles should be shared. Further, both teachers should have equal opportunities to work with all students.</p> <hd id="AN0134455975-8">Co-assessing</hd> <p>In co-assessing, both co-teachers assume responsibility for assessing student work. Both teachers should be able to answer parent questions about student performance and behavior. This can occur only if both teachers have observed all students, corrected their work, and worked with all students in large, small, and/or individual groups.</p> <p>To promote parity in co-assessment, teachers can divide student work and each grade half the products. Over time, both teachers should have opportunities to have graded every student's work. This helps both teachers become acquainted with each student's skills and the curriculum. To promote inner-scorer reliability, before grading all student products, co-teachers can independently score work from one student working above grade level, a typically developing student, and a student working below grade level. Then, they can compare their assessment results of each of these three students, discuss the rationale for the scores they provided, and make necessary changes in the assignment or their scoring process (Conderman and Hedin, 2012).</p> <p>Both teachers should also have input into grading systems such as rubrics, point sheets, grading systems, point values and proportions, and final grades. Similarly, both teachers should understand and support individual student assessment accommodations or modifications. Both teachers should make parent contact when a child is doing well or when a child needs support. Some questions co-teachers can mutually discuss regarding co-assessing include:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What is the role of assessment in our class?</item> <p></p> <item> What formal and informal assessments will we use?</item> <p></p> <item> How will we use assessment results?</item> <p></p> <item> How will we implement assessment accommodations with integrity and confidentiality?</item> <p></p> <item> How will we handle disagreements regarding student grades?</item> <p></p> <item> How will we differentiate assignments and rubrics?</item> <p></p> <item> How will we share grading responsibilities?</item> </ulist> <p>Co-planning, co-instructing, and co-assessing provide opportunities for co-teachers to consider ways they will contribute, with parity, to the co-taught classroom. When each teacher contributes to each component, students benefit from the expertise of each teacher, which is one of the goals of co-teaching (Friend and Cook 2017).</p> <hd id="AN0134455975-9">Concluding thoughts</hd> <p>Co-teaching is a unique instructional approach that involves two licensed professionals sharing their knowledge, skills, and expertise to differentiate instruction in diverse classrooms. One concern repeatedly revealed in research is that one co-teacher (usually the special educator) consistently assumes the support role, especially at middle and high school levels. Consequently, both teachers do not share parity. This can lead to several serious consequences. To maximize the potential of co-teaching, co-teachers can explore numerous ways for each to assume purposeful and equitable roles during co-planning, co-instructing, and co-assessing. When both co-teachers are purposeful in fulfilling roles based on their expertise, such as Mitch and Diane who were introduced in our opening scenario, then all students benefit from this promising instructional approach.</p> <ref id="AN0134455975-10"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Conderman, G. 2011. Middle school co-teaching: Effective practices and student reflections. Middle School Journal 42 ( 4 ): 24 - 31.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Conderman, G., and L. Hedin. 2012. Purposeful assessment practices for co-teachers. TEACHING Exceptional Children 44 ( 4 ): 19 - 27.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> French, N. 2003. Managing para-educators in your school: How to hire, train, and supervise non-certified staff. Thousand Oaks, CA : Corwin Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Friend, M., and L. Cook. 2017. Interactions: Collaboration skills for school professionals. Boston, FL : Pearson.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Hedin, L., and G. Conderman. 2018. <emph>Supplemental versus complementary co-instruction: Differentiation within co-taught classrooms</emph>. Paper presented at the Council for Exceptional Children Conference, Tampa, FL.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Howard, L., and E. A. Potts. 2009. Using co-planning time: Strategies for a successful co-teaching marriage. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus 5 ( 4 ): 1 - 12</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Huberman, M., M. Navo, and T. Parrish. 2012. Effective practices in high performing districts serving students in special education. Journal of Special Education Leadership 25 ( 2 ): 59 - 71.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Mastropieri, M., T. Scruggs, J. Graetz, J. Norland, W. Gardizi, and K. McDuffie. 2005. Case studies in co-teaching in the content areas: Successes, failures, and challenges. Intervention in School and Clinic 40 ( 5 ): 260 - 70.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> McKenzie, R. G. 2009. A national survey of pre-service preparation for collaboration. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children 32 ( 4 ): 379 - 93.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Murawski, W. 2008. What is really happening in co-taught classrooms: One state knows! Paper presented at the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children Conference, Dallas, TX.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Scruggs, T., M. Mastropieri, and K. McDuffie. 2007. Co-teaching in inclusive classrooms: A meta-synthesis of qualitative research. Exceptional Children 73 ( 4 ): 392 - 416.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Young, M. D., K. Winn, and M. Reedy. 2017. The Every Student Succeeds Act: Strengthening the focus on educational leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly 53 ( 5 ): 705 - 26.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Greg Conderman and Lisa Liberty</p> </aug>
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  Data: Establishing Parity in Middle and Secondary Co-Taught Classrooms
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Conderman%2C+Greg%22">Conderman, Greg</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Liberty%2C+Lisa%22">Liberty, Lisa</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Clearing+House%3A+A+Journal+of+Educational+Strategies%2C+Issues+and+Ideas%22"><i>Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas</i></searchLink>. 2018 91(6):222-228.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: 10.1080/00098655.2018.1524358
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  Data: Co-teaching is one approach for providing instruction in the general education classroom for students with and without disabilities. In this approach, two licensed teachers (usually one general educator and one special educator) teach a diverse group of students. Researchers have confirmed that often co-teachers do not experience parity; that is, they do not share, distribute, and implement tasks equally. Often, the special educator assumes the role of a paraprofessional rather than an equal. This article presents reasons for this lack of parity and provides specific ideas for honoring the expertise of both co-teachers.
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