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Teaching the History of Colonization in the Postsecondary Classroom

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Title: Teaching the History of Colonization in the Postsecondary Classroom
Language: English
Authors: Burke, Susan
Source: Journal of Social Work Education. 2019 55(4):658-668.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2019
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: History Instruction, Teaching Methods, Foreign Policy, Counselor Training, Social Work, American Indians, Caseworkers, Counselor Attitudes, Foreign Countries, Self Concept, Educational Experience, Counselor Role, American Indian History, Canada Natives
Geographic Terms: Canada
DOI: 10.1080/10437797.2019.1611510
ISSN: 1043-7797
Abstract: This study explores the ways Indigenous social workers experience and learn about colonization and provides suggestions for educators who are tasked with teaching that material. Nine First Nations and Métis social workers in British Columbia were interviewed. Data collection and analysis took place using the research praxis "métissage" as a theoretical framework and involved semistructured interviews. Thematic analysis revealed three themes: colonization as an unnamed lived experience; colonization as academic, cognitive knowledge; and colonization as a personal and professional reality.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1232224
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0139258077;swe01oct.19;2019Oct24.05:19;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0139258077-1">Teaching the History of Colonization in the Postsecondary Classroom </title> <p>This study explores the ways Indigenous social workers experience and learn about colonization and provides suggestions for educators who are tasked with teaching that material. Nine First Nations and Métis social workers in British Columbia were interviewed. Data collection and analysis took place using the research praxis métissage as a theoretical framework and involved semistructured interviews. Thematic analysis revealed three themes: colonization as an unnamed lived experience; colonization as academic, cognitive knowledge; and colonization as a personal and professional reality.</p> <p>As part of an attempt at reconciliation between the Canadian federal government and Canada's Indigenous peoples, members of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) traveled across Canada for 6 years listening to the stories of survivors of the residential school system. In its final calls to action, the TRC ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref1">37</reflink>]) made several recommendations for academic institutions including an overall call for all elementary and high school students to receive mandatory instruction on topics such as residential schools, treaties, and Aboriginal Peoples' contributions to Canada as well as a specific call for postsecondary institutions (i.e., colleges and universities) to ensure that social workers are properly trained regarding the history and impacts of residential schools. Although the TRC did not make general recommendations for postsecondary institutions, its work drew attention to the need for students at all levels to learn about Canada's Indigenous peoples, resulting in many universities across Canada moving toward implementing mandatory Indigenous-content courses in all their programs.</p> <p>It is difficult to argue against the idea that students at all levels should be taught about the impacts of colonization; however, educating students about Indigenous issues can be more complex than it initially appears, and it is important for educators to carry this plan forward with mindfulness and care. Although there may be a tendency to think about this curriculum in terms of non-Indigenous students needing to be taught about the colonization of Indigenous peoples, it is important to remember that the classroom is also made up of Indigenous students who will receive the same instruction, and these students may have different needs from their non-Indigenous counterparts.</p> <p>The profession of social work often involves direct work with Indigenous peoples, and many social work programs have already included some Indigenous-specific content in their curriculum, either by offering entire courses on Indigenous social work or by incorporating this material into their general course offerings. Exploring the experiences of Indigenous social workers with learning about colonization before and after entering child welfare practice can provide us with considerations regarding how social work and other postsecondary programs can appropriately implement the recommendations of the TRC.</p> <p>The data for this research stem from a secondary analysis of a larger study that examined how social workers experience value-behavior conflicts in their work (Burke, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref2">7</reflink>]). In that study, Indigenous child welfare social workers shared what their understanding of colonization was prior to and after entering child welfare practice. This research reports on that data.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-2">Situating self</hd> <p>In keeping with my traditional teachings, I begin by situating myself. I am a Métis woman born and raised on the traditional territory of the Lheidli T'enneh in northern British Columbia (BC). I was a frontline social worker for 20 years before beginning to teach social work full-time at the University of Northern BC. In hindsight, I began my role as an instructor of Indigenous social work somewhat naively, assuming that the students I taught belonged to two groups: non-Indigenous social work students, who needed to learn about the history of colonization in Canada and its interface with the social work profession, and Indigenous social work students, who came to the classroom with that hard-earned knowledge. I learned after reading through students' year-end journal assignments that I was mistaken: In the social work classroom, many of my Indigenous students were learning about colonization for the first time. As I handed out assigned readings on residential school abuses, showed documentaries portraying the high rates of suicide on reservations, and quoted statistics on the numbers of Indigenous children in care, many of these students were connecting their lived experiences with that academic knowledge. I began to realize that I had a special obligation to those students to teach my classes in a way that provided space for them to learn in safety. This research study stems from my desire to learn more about how we as Indigenous social workers learn about colonization and are affected by that knowledge and from my belief that increasing our understanding in this area will help social work instructors, as well as other postsecondary educators, to deliver this information in a way that does not do further harm to Indigenous peoples.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-3">Literature review</hd> <p>Canada has a long history involving colonization and its Indigenous peoples, and the residential school system is arguably one of the most damaging pieces of that history. Between the late 1800s and the mid-1990s, the Canadian federal government worked in partnership with various Christian denominations to run residential schools for First Nations children (Frideres, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref3">15</reflink>]). Attendance was compulsory at these schools, which were designed to assimilate Indigenous children into Western society, eliminating what government officials called "the Indian Problem" by replacing Indigenous ways of being with "Eurowestern culture, knowledge, and spirituality" (Blackstock & Trocme, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref4">5</reflink>], p. 14). Children were separated from their families and communities for long periods of time, and they were punished for speaking their languages and communicating with their siblings who attended school with them (Frideres, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref5">15</reflink>]: Hare, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref6">17</reflink>]). Sexual and physical abuse, neglect, and diseases such as tuberculosis and smallpox were widespread (Blackstock, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref7">4</reflink>]; Fournier & Crey, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref8">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>Social workers have played a complicit role in the plight of Indigenous peoples through their involvement in the residential school system and after those schools began to fall out of favor in the early 1950s, with the Sixties Scoop (Hare, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref9">17</reflink>]; Sinclair, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref10">33</reflink>]). During the Sixties Scoop, which lasted from the 1960s to the 1980s, massive numbers of First Nations and Métis children were forcibly removed from their homes and placed in non-Indigenous foster and adoptive homes in Canada, the United States, and abroad (Fourier & Crey, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref11">14</reflink>]; Sinclair, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref12">33</reflink>]; Walmsley, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref13">39</reflink>]). Indeed, many critics argue that the Sixties Scoop was a perpetuation of the colonial processes that began with the residential school system (Sinclair, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref14">34</reflink>]). The residential school system and the Sixties Scoop left a legacy of trauma, loss, and disconnection for First Nations and Métis peoples across Canada, resulting in ongoing issues such as high rates of suicide and mental health problems (Kirmayer & Valaskakis, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref15">21</reflink>]), substance misuse (Loppie & Pauly, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref16">25</reflink>]), incarceration (Monture, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref17">30</reflink>]), and children in government care (Hick & Stokes, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref18">19</reflink>]; Representative for Children and Youth, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref19">32</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite this chronic overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in areas served by social workers, the majority of social work students and practitioners have historically been non-Indigenous. Although there are no concrete data regarding Indigenous social work students in Canada, their numbers are anecdotally small (Vedan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref20">38</reflink>]), which is consistent with the statistics on Indigenous postsecondary students that indicate that only 9.8% of Indigenous peoples in Canada have a postsecondary degree, compared to 26.5% of their non-Indigenous counterparts (Statistics Canada, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref21">35</reflink>]). Data regarding Indigenous social workers also show their numbers are low: between 2% (Fallon, MacLaurin, Trocme, & Felstiner, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref22">13</reflink>]) and 10% (Kwin, Lefebvre, Fallon, & Trocmé, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>]). These numbers have created an issue for schools of social work and social service organizations in their attempts to increase the delivery of services to Indigenous peoples by Indigenous peoples. It is difficult to ascertain whether the resulting recruitment (Ministry of Children and Family Development, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref24">29</reflink>]; Zapf, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref25">42</reflink>]) has produced an increased number of Indigenous social work students and practitioners. Although there is a sense among Indigenous social workers that their numbers are growing (Baskin, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref26">2</reflink>]; Sinclair, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref27">33</reflink>]; Vedan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref28">38</reflink>]), research in Australia (Green et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref29">16</reflink>]) and the United States (Cross, Day, Gogliotti, & Pung, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref30">10</reflink>]) shows that the retention of Indigenous social work students is an issue, and research in Canada (Representative for Children and Youth, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref32">32</reflink>]) shows that the retention of Indigenous practitioners also remains a concern.</p> <p>There is a general consensus in the literature on social work education that one of the difficulties behind the retention of Indigenous social work students is the lack of fit between their learning needs and what postsecondary institutions have to offer (Cote-Meek, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref33">9</reflink>]; Cross et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref34">10</reflink>]; Green et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref35">16</reflink>]). This literature challenges the assumption embedded in social work education that a Western worldview is "automatically relevant and valid, and is universally applicable" (Sinclair, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref36">33</reflink>], p. 51) and contends that we must embed Indigenous knowledge into our teaching and focus on the ways Eurocentric worldviews dominate academic learning, using this information to disrupt that dominance (Dumbrill & Green, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref37">12</reflink>]). Teaching social work from a Eurocentric perspective is not only ineffective for retaining Indigenous social work students it also perpetuates the colonization of Indigenous peoples (Cote-Meek, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref38">9</reflink>]; Dumbrill & Green, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref39">12</reflink>]). Indeed, it is hard to ignore the fact that Western education of Indigenous peoples, which started with missionary day schools and boarding schools and then residential schools, has historically been a direct agent of colonization (Hare, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref40">17</reflink>]).</p> <p>The recommendations of the TRC ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref41">37</reflink>]) focus particular attention on how postsecondary institutions can meet the learning needs of Indigenous students while teaching material on the history of colonization. Indigenous authors have brought several important points to the forefront of this conversation. To begin with, learning about the history of colonization and the significant negative effects it has on the lives of Indigenous peoples in Canada and around the world (Hart, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref42">18</reflink>]; Representative for Children and Youth, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref43">32</reflink>]) can traumatize Indigenous students and leave them feeling angry and overwhelmed. As Maskikow scholar McDonald ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref44">27</reflink>]) reflects on her own early days as an undergraduate student:</p> <p>I felt vulnerable, betrayed, and angry over the course content.... The fact is that colonization is unjust and ongoing; it is the root cause of oppression and social suffering of Indigenous people, including gender-based violence; it dehumanizes both Indigenous and settler people; and settlers benefit from it. (para. 4)</p> <p>Second, including information on colonization in the postsecondary classroom, particularly when it is mandated, means that Indigenous students may have to go through the process of learning this material alongside non-Indigenous students who would not be there if given the choice. These students may hold racist, stereotyped views of Indigenous peoples (Weaver, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref45">40</reflink>]) and may not be ready to acknowledge their own places of privilege, which may contribute to the creation of hostile, unsafe learning environments for Indigenous students (McDonald, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref46">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>In addition, there is an inherent danger of educators pathologizing Indigenous peoples in the classroom by focusing on the continued difficulties they face (i.e., high rates of suicide and mental health issues, substance misuse, incarceration) without adequately linking those issues to their precipitating factors. Without those links clearly being made, Indigenous students may leave the classroom thinking that their families and communities are irreparably dysfunctional and feeling an ensuing sense of shame and hopelessness (Cote-Meek, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref47">9</reflink>]). History, including what is found in textbooks, has generally been taught from a Western worldview, and Indigenous peoples' narratives are completely omitted unless they support the perspective that Indigenous peoples are primitive, unintelligent, or virtually extinct (Cote-Meek, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref48">9</reflink>]; Lawrence, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref49">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>Finally, being in the position of maybe facilitating links that Indigenous students are making between their lived experiences and the history of colonization places a responsibility on educators to become self-aware of their own biases, stereotypes, and cultural indifference because these significantly affect teaching and must be reflected on if cultural issues are to be adequately addressed in the classroom (Weaver, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref50">40</reflink>]). To engage in this self-reflection, educators may need safe places where they can go through a process of self-examination (Weaver, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref51">40</reflink>]). It is important to note that Indigenous instructors also need to engage in this process. As Indigenous peoples, we are on a continuum in terms of knowing about and practicing our knowledge and worldviews (Baskin, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref52">3</reflink>]). Because of the colonizing forces we have experienced, we are also often active, although unconscious, participants in the creation and maintenance of colonized relationships and colonizing influences and therefore need to remain vigilant around our own need for learning and self-reflection (Baikie, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref53">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Arguably, few social work educators would disagree that the classroom must better meet the needs of Indigenous students. However, it is not enough to acknowledge this need for change and be open to incorporating it: instructors must also have an understanding of what Indigenous students experience in the classroom so that they can apply this understanding to their teaching methods. This research study asks the question, What are the experiences of Indigenous social workers in learning about colonization before and after entering child welfare practice, and how can this information be used to provide education on colonization in ways that meet their needs in the postsecondary classroom?</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-4">Method</hd> <p>This study was undertaken using the research praxis <emph>métissage</emph> as its theoretical framework, allowing a blend of qualitative and Indigenous research strategies. I chose métissage because it provides space for Indigenous researchers to engage in decolonizing research and explore issues of identity and authenticity. Métissage has been used in the context of literary strategies, linguistic artifacts, and theoretical constructs (Chambers et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref54">8</reflink>]). Although not an exclusively Métis concept, métissage is a research praxis that has roots in the Canadian Métis tradition as well as in other colonial contexts. A métissage framework allows researchers to openly acknowledge and name the third space where Métis people exist, which overlaps Western and First Nations spaces while remaining separate and distinct. Lowan-Trudeau ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref55">26</reflink>]) describes this third space is an "existential and epistemological meeting place where Western and Indigenous knowledge and perspectives collide, mix and mingle to form new cultural expressions and understandings" (p. 118).</p> <p>With its bold colors intermingled through a process of braiding, the Métis sash has been used as an analogy for métissage research, allowing researchers to strategically choose from different research methods to create a distinctive research approach (Donald, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref56">11</reflink>]). This research study incorporated three primary strands in its design. First, a métissage theoretical framework was used to provide a guiding structure for the research design, allowing an intentional weaving of Indigenous and Western research strategies. Second, qualitative methods including semistructured interviews and thematic coding were used for data collection and analysis. Third, commonly shared Indigenous philosophical beliefs regarding issues such as reciprocity and relationship building were used to guide the entire process and provide direction on ethical decisions. For example, although the research ethics board approval from the University of Northern BC granted permission to conduct the semistructured interviews by phone, I chose to travel to participants' communities to create relationships and personally present each one with a gift, consistent with consistent with my personal philosophical beliefs as an Indigenous researcher.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-5">Sample</hd> <p>In keeping with the original study (Burke, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref57">7</reflink>]), the criterion for participation were that participants had to be social workers who are or were employed by the provincial child welfare organization or a delegated Aboriginal agency in BC where transracial adoption plans for Indigenous children are facilitated. Potential participants were contacted in one of three ways: a gatekeeper e-mailed invitations to participate to deputy directors and executive directors, I contacted possible participants I personally know, and I asked participants to forward letters of invitation to other people who fit the criterion.</p> <p>The sample consisted of nine women located in five communities across BC. Seven identified as being First Nations and two as being Métis. One of the participants was in her 50s, and the rest were in their 30s or 40s. They had a variety of educational backgrounds. All had a bachelor of social work degree, two had an additional undergraduate degree, and three had a graduate degree (two had a master's degree in social work). They had practiced social work for an average of 9 years and none had fewer than 5 years of experience. All the participants had worked in child welfare. At the time of the interviews, six of the participants were employed by an Indigenous child welfare agency, two were working outside child welfare, and one had left work to attend school.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-6">Data collection</hd> <p>This study used individual semi-structured interviews. Participants were asked open-ended questions regarding their experiences practicing social work along with more specific questions regarding value and behavior conflicts, consistent with the original study. This article is based on the information participants provided in response to questions about how their understanding of colonization has affected their work (e.g., What do you think your understanding was of the colonization of BC's Aboriginal peoples before you came to this work? Has that changed during the course of this work?). Interviews were audio recorded and lasted about 90 minutes. They were conducted in person after informed consent was obtained from each participant. No one received an incentive to take part, although, as stated previously, a small gift was given after each interview.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-7">Data analysis</hd> <p>All transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis as described by Braun and Clarke ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref58">6</reflink>]). Thematic analysis is a method of qualitative data analysis that involves identifying, analyzing, and detailing themes found in data. I transcribed each interview for the first research study. For this secondary analysis, hard copies of the transcripts were reread, and sections in which participants spoke of their experiences regarding colonization were highlighted. These themes were then electronically placed into subgroups. Clear, consistent themes emerged, and comments that most clearly demonstrated participants' messages were chosen to illustrate each theme.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-8">Results</hd> <p>Three distinct themes arose in the interviews: colonization as an unnamed lived experience; colonization as academic, cognitive knowledge; and colonization as personal and professional reality. In the following section, each theme is identified, and then consistent with qualitative research methods and widespread Indigenous beliefs regarding the importance of story as a component of decolonizing research, direct quotations are used to ensure that participants' are heard "in their own voice" (Kovach, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref59">22</reflink>], p. 131).</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-9">Colonization as an unnamed lived experience</hd> <p>Of the nine social workers who were interviewed, eight said they had experienced the impacts of colonization while growing up but did not have an understanding of how those experiences fit in the history of colonization in Canada until attending postsecondary school. One described growing up with family members who had attended residential schools or made significant geographic moves to avoid having their children attend residential schools: "My grandfather took them from the reserve and brought them to [an urban area] so they wouldn't have to go to residential school ... my parents and aunties were all affected ... which impacted us, me, my cousins." Another participant poignantly described how her entire life was affected by her adoption into a non-Indigenous family during the Sixties Scoop; her young mother was given few options:</p> <p>It was understood that you can go to this home for Aboriginal women and proceed with adoption ... it wasn't, you can go to this home and we could explore your options, or ... see what supports there are. It was here's a place for you to go and have your baby to give it up for adoption..... it certainly speaks to ... the Sixties Scoop and understanding that, ... no one would have supported [participant's birth mother] in having this baby. That wasn't an option for her.</p> <p>One participant talked about how the impacts of colonization, including suicide and substance misuse, had been threaded throughout her childhood without her understanding what was occurring:</p> <p>We experienced it first-hand.... It was happening to us, but ... I didn't understand it, I didn't understand and nobody ever explained it to me as a child growing up ... and when you ... see your friends dying and you ... hear adults say, "rheumatic fever, drowned, died in a fire, died in a car accident." Nobody is saying they were drinking. No one was saying the parents weren't there. And no one is saying, "why weren't the parents there?" Oh, they were drinking. "Oh, why are they drinking" all the time? Is there any underlying cause for changing the way you feel? Using alcohol or drugs or pills to change the way you feel? ... the pain and the hurt, the memories, the childhood, blah blah. Nobody explains all of that to you and you're growing up and you hear your friends committed suicide. They were found hanging in the trees. So my experience of colonization ... you just experienced it without anybody explaining it to you. But you sure don't forget it. And as you grown into your adult years, you try to make sense of it.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-10">Colonization as academic, cognitive knowledge</hd> <p>All the social workers interviewed had learned about colonization while obtaining their social work degrees, and some had also explored this topic while enrolled in other programs. Seven of the participants described the postsecondary classroom as where they first began to apply a cognitive understanding of colonization to their lived experiences. One social worker reflected on starting postsecondary school and first learning about the history of colonization in Canada:</p> <p>So all these puzzle pieces are ... coming together now ... that's where I started understanding ... the history of ... my family ... my nation, community ... and why all this stuff was ... where it currently is still today for the most part and ... in terms of ... the real deep social issue stuff ... I was ... realizing that there's a huge ... legacy I guess of mistreatment of indigenous people which ... continues to this day in some ways.... like, ... violence and substance use and all sort of stuff and just knowing.... my mom always told me that she went to ... a residential school and my grandmother actually went to a day school and then a residential school and ... my mom had mentioned off and on her experiences ... and had also alluded to some of my grandma's experiences and ... maybe it was, you know, they just went to school (<emph>laughs</emph>). That's what I thought until ... it wasn't just a school that they went to, right? (<emph>laughs</emph>).</p> <p>Although the majority of participants described their postsecondary classroom learning as an illuminating experience that helped them to understand their earlier life events, one participant noted that what she learned did not fit with her lived experience of her family being a source of strength and support. This participant's recollection was that information on Indigenous peoples, including the history of colonization, was presented in a way that pathologized them and failed to adequately capture the resourcefulness, resiliency, and health inherent in these individuals and families.</p> <p>All I knew is my family was my security ... even though we weren't perfect, we went through everything together. If I didn't have my family, I don't know where I would be. It was a rough upbringing ... but I couldn't have gone through everything without them. So ... I find it hard to believe that everybody in a family is unhealthy because I know they're there. I believe everybody loves their children, right? So all those beliefs and myths I'm hearing ... I'm putting against my own, what I know, and it's just always coming back to, "no" ... I know there's strength in every family.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-11">Colonization as a personal and professional reality</hd> <p>Each participant described how after graduating from postsecondary school and beginning practice, her understanding of colonization deepened as she began to personally see its devastating impacts on individuals, families, and communities. One social worker said she had learned about the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the child welfare system during her postsecondary education but then had an eye-opening experience regarding what that actually means for those children's communities once she entered the field.</p> <p>I was asked by my team leader to go out to one of the rural communities up north [and] basically was told that there were no First Nations children on that reserve. They had all been taken away.... I was really taken aback because, you know, hearing that in your studies in theory, through books, and then actually seeing it in that day and age and knowing that there are no children left in that community is just, it's really heart-wrenching ... you kind of think, oh this happened a long time ago, Sixties Scoop and all this stuff that we learn through our degree but to actually see something like that, it ... takes you back and it really makes you think about where kids are being placed, how well are we doing our work, are we really taking that time to explore family options?</p> <p>Another practitioner discussed working in the First Nations community of her people, where she had never lived, after completing her degree. For her, this experience brought a new level of understanding of being raised by a mother and grandmother grown up in that community. At the same time, it did not completely fit with the somewhat simplistic instruction she was given in the social work classroom regarding how to practice with living in the often-difficult circumstances faced by people living in reservation communities. She described this complexity as an experience where she witnessed an elder teaching their language to a group of community members by singing a Catholic hymn in their language:</p> <p>It was such a huge eye-opener to actually be able to take what I've learned in school and then go out into my home community and practice there for my very first year of post-BSW work and to really put the pieces together..... It was difficult..... I don't really know how to describe it ... almost like this ball of turmoil that was trying to unravel still and ... it's so evident ... I know that I learned about the fact that ... there's a First Nations social work approach and this is what it looks like and trying to apply that in my home community and knowing that they were so entrenched in ... Catholic ways of knowing and being, right? ... And I worked alongside ... the cultural advisor ... a respected elder ... and [I think] no, this is wrong. She should not be teaching us how to sing in our language but the lyrics were all based around Catholic sorts of songs ... and I felt ... almost sick to my stomach [to the point that] I had to get up and leave.</p> <p>Two of the social workers described how a deepening understanding of the impacts of colonization made them worry about the role they were playing in perpetuating these impacts through their roles as social workers. One reflected on the work she was doing making permanency plans for Indigenous children in the context of her lived experience of being placed for adoption during the Sixties Scoop and her academic learning of the devastating effects of these placements: "It's such a heavy responsibility. Are you making the right decisions? How do you know we're making the right decisions? What does that look like? And I think for me, continuing the legacy of colonization is a huge fear."</p> <p>Another said her practice as a social worker caused her to question her own role in the colonization of her people:</p> <p>And it's not working. How can it be working? If 80% of kids are Indigenous in care, is it working? ... and when I first heard that the foster homes were the new wave of residential schools, I was going, hmm? Residential schools were pretty bad. And then you hear about the kids dying and you see the numbers.... It created, for me, a sense of being disloyal to my own people.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-12">Discussion</hd> <p>When asked about their understanding of the colonization of the Aboriginal peoples of BC before and since entering child welfare practice, participants expressed their experiences in terms of their understanding before, during, and after their postsecondary education. The stories they told suggest that as they move through different stages of their life and career, Indigenous social workers' understanding of colonization changes. Prior to attending postsecondary school, colonization may be part of their everyday lived experiences but not necessarily something they understand in an academic, cognitive way. In postsecondary school, they may begin to link an understanding of colonization with their lived experiences. Then once they enter the field, their work may lead a deepened, complex understanding of colonization, including their potential role in its perpetuation.</p> <p>Although the majority of participants said they did not have an academic understanding of colonization prior to attending postsecondary school, this situation may change following the TRC ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref60">37</reflink>])recommendations for this instruction to be included in elementary and high schools. Still postsecondary educators cannot assume this training was delivered nor that it was delivered adequately in part because elementary and high school teachers themselves may lack the awareness, education, or resources to deliver it in a meaningful way (Cote-Meek, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref61">9</reflink>]; Milne, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref62">28</reflink>]). The postsecondary classroom is the last level of education many people go through before beginning their careers and will always offer a vital space for learning about the links between colonization and practice, therefore requiring postsecondary educators to remain mindful of how they are delivering this material. Indeed, the postsecondary classroom may well continue to be the first place where Indigenous students begin to apply an academic, cognitive understanding of colonization to some of their experiences as well as those of their family members. In addition, once they enter practice, Indigenous social workers may experience a deepened awareness of the impacts of colonization and of the lack of fit between actual practice and the theories and practice skills they learned through their social work education (Baskin, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref63">3</reflink>]). Postsecondary social work educators are therefore in a unique position not only to have an impact on students' learning in the classroom but also possibly once they enter the field.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-13">Limitations</hd> <p>It is important to note several limitations to this study. The data, are from a larger study on value (Burke, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref64">3</reflink>]) and behavior conflicts, participants were self-reporting their experiences, and the sample may be considered homogenous (i.e., there were no males or new social workers). A more varied sample may have yielded different findings. The sample size was relatively small, and this study does not generalize the experiences of all Indigenous social workers. Finally, this study was designed to provide information about how Indigenous social workers understand the history of colonization before and after entering child welfare practice, and it does not provide a general analysis on the topic of Indigenous social work education.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-14">Ideas for further consideration</hd> <p>As educators have begun to move forward with the recommendations of the TRC ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref65">37</reflink>]), it has become apparent there is a lack of definitive direction regarding how to best carry out those recommendations. Although the findings of this research study provide only a starting point for that discussion, when considered in the context of the literature on Indigenous social work education, they may provide some ideas for educators to consider as they move forward with delivering this material, such as the following:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Normalize students' feelings by acknowledging that some of the information presented may bring up negative feelings about events they or their family members have experienced or are still experiencing.</item> <p></p> <item> Have support staff in the classroom and link students to available supports (i.e., if available on campus, Indigenous faculty or peer support, the institution's First Nations center, counseling supports, or elders) (Weaver, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref66">40</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Create a safe place for students to share their feelings by building relationships with them, keeping in mind that in many Indigenous worldviews, relationship building is foundational to everything else (Frideres, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref67">15</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Be prepared to address the reluctance, hostility, and racism that may arise in the classroom to avoid perpetuating the very colonization that is being taught (Cote-Meek, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref68">9</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Create time and space to explore your biases, stereotypes, and cultural indifference before attempting to address cultural issues in the classroom (Weaver, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref69">40</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Find ways to balance teachings on the negative impacts of colonization with instruction on the historical and current resiliency, resourcefulness, and beauty in Indigenous peoples and communities. For example, have students research iconic Indigenous historical figures (such as Mary John in the BC area), invite Indigenous professionals into the classroom to share their work experiences, encourage students to become active in local Indigenous cultural and community events, and create assignments that incorporate indigenous poetry and art.</item> <p></p> <item> Wherever possible, have Indigenous peoples teach about colonization. Having Indigenous peoples share their stories and perspectives can help avoid colonization being presented as history, enforces the reality that colonization is ongoing and devastating, and can give back the power that is taken from Indigenous peoples when non-Indigenous educators become experts in their pasts (Lawrence, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref70">24</reflink>]). Inviting Indigenous guest speakers to the classroom and encouraging hiring and retention of Indigenous faculty can help in this process (Weaver, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref71">40</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Avoid oversimplifying Indigenous social work practice so that students are better prepared for what they will face in the field. Keep in mind that Indigenous social workers find themselves employed in diverse practice settings and must be given space to learn not only to work with the impact of colonization on Indigenous peoples but also "strategically with, within, and across cultural contextual boundaries" (Baikie, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref72">1</reflink>], p. 58).</item> <p></p> <item> Take every opportunity to build your knowledge of effective practice by deepening your understanding of colonization (i.e., by spending time in the field, engaging in research with Indigenous communities, volunteering at community events).</item> <p></p> <item> Help students move past a theoretical understanding of Indigenous social work practice by creating assignments that have knowledge-based components (i.e., literature reviews) as well as application and synthesis-based components (i.e., case studies). Use experiential classroom exercises and assignments that help students link theory with practice and to analyze their experiences of oppression and how those relate to the dominant social relations of privilege and oppression (Hughes, Chau, James, & Sherman, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref73">20</reflink>]; Tremblay, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref74">36</reflink>]; Wehbi, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref75">41</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Find ways to meaningfully support Indigenous students in field placements. For example, provide an Indigenous mentor and critically discuss the intersection of Indigenous social work theories of practice and the reality of fieldwork.</item> <p></p> <item> Help prepare students to mitigate trauma they may experience in the field by teaching and modeling meaningful self-care rather than offering students simplified solutions. For example, rather than suggesting they might take a bubble bath to de-stress from a difficult day of practice (an activity that is very unlikely to rectify the impacts of historical trauma), suggest they turn to an elder or a therapist or participate in traditional wellness practices (i.e., a smudge, a traditional Indigenous cleansing ceremony using smoke made by burning sacred plants such as sage). Where appropriate, instructors could help students to explore some of these practices before entering the field, for example, by inviting elders to the classroom or making students aware when smudging is offered at the post secondary institution.</item> </ulist> <p>Although these considerations are focused on teaching social work in postsecondary institutions, they may be of benefit to educators from other areas as well. In addition, although this study focuses on the needs of Indigenous social work students, it is arguable that when we create safe and effective learning in a social work classroom for Indigenous students, all students in the classroom, and in the institution at large, benefit.</p> <hd id="AN0139258077-15">Conclusion</hd> <p>In keeping with the heart of the recommendations of the TRC ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref76">37</reflink>]), students at all levels should learn about the history and ongoing nature of colonization in Canada. Postsecondary educators may omit information on colonization or gloss over it because of a lack of confidence in their own knowledge base (Weaver, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref77">40</reflink>]) or a fear of retraumatizing students; however, doing so not only results in students' remaining uneducated about significant issues but also contributes to the suppression and marginalization of an important narrative (Cote-Meek, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref78">9</reflink>]). Instead, instructors should take the time to learn about the needs of Indigenous students and should plan how they will deliver material on colonization in safe and constructive ways.</p> <ref id="AN0139258077-16"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref53" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Baikie, G. (2009). Indigenous-centered social work: Theorizing a social work way-of-being. In R. Sinclair, M. Hart, & G. Bruyere (Eds.), Wicihitowin: Aboriginal social work in Canada (pp. 42 – 61). 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  Data: Teaching the History of Colonization in the Postsecondary Classroom
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Social+Work+Education%22"><i>Journal of Social Work Education</i></searchLink>. 2019 55(4):658-668.
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  Data: 10.1080/10437797.2019.1611510
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  Data: This study explores the ways Indigenous social workers experience and learn about colonization and provides suggestions for educators who are tasked with teaching that material. Nine First Nations and Métis social workers in British Columbia were interviewed. Data collection and analysis took place using the research praxis "métissage" as a theoretical framework and involved semistructured interviews. Thematic analysis revealed three themes: colonization as an unnamed lived experience; colonization as academic, cognitive knowledge; and colonization as a personal and professional reality.
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  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1232224
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1232224
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/10437797.2019.1611510
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 11
        StartPage: 658
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: History Instruction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Policy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Counselor Training
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Work
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: American Indians
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Caseworkers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Counselor Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Concept
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Experience
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Counselor Role
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: American Indian History
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Canada Natives
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Canada
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Teaching the History of Colonization in the Postsecondary Classroom
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Burke, Susan
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2019
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1043-7797
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 55
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Social Work Education
              Type: main
ResultId 1