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Formative Assessment Methods for Middle Level Classrooms

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Title: Formative Assessment Methods for Middle Level Classrooms
Language: English
Authors: Conderman, Greg, Pinter, Erika, Young, Natalie
Source: Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas. 2020 93(5):233-240.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 8
Publication Date: 2020
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Junior High Schools
Middle Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Formative Evaluation, Middle School Students, Student Evaluation, Evaluation Methods, Middle School Teachers, Feedback (Response), Learner Engagement, Class Activities, Audience Response Systems
DOI: 10.1080/00098655.2020.1778615
ISSN: 0009-8655
Abstract: Formative assessment is the process of gathering student data "during" instruction, so teachers can make adjustments to facilitate student learning. Despite the benefits of formative assessment for teachers and students, some teachers do not view formative assessment as an integral part of their instruction. Therefore, this article overviews formative assessment and provides specific examples of various formative assessment methods for middle level teachers.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2020
Accession Number: EJ1266624
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0145323226;clh01sep.20;2020Aug28.05:02;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0145323226-1">Formative Assessment Methods for Middle Level Classrooms </title> <p>Formative assessment is the process of gathering student data during instruction, so teachers can make adjustments to facilitate student learning. Despite the benefits of formative assessment for teachers and students, some teachers do not view formative assessment as an integral part of their instruction. Therefore, this article overviews formative assessment and provides specific examples of various formative assessment methods for middle level teachers.</p> <p>Keywords: Assessment; academic performance; evaluation; achievement</p> <p>After he models a new math process, seventh grade math teacher Mr. McGregor pauses and asks students to write answers on their individual white boards to several questions about steps in the process. Students display their responses upon his request. Middle level science teacher Ms. Di Gotto reserves the last five minutes of class for students to write a summary of main ideas covered in the lab activity, which they write on an exit slip and submit as they leave. At the beginning of class, eighth grade English teacher Mr. James has student pairs orally quiz each other over the characters and plot from the day's homework novel reading. All of these teachers are using formative assessment methods to engage students and check their understanding of critical content. This article provides an overview of formative assessment and describes several formative assessment methods for middle level teachers.</p> <p>Educational assessment has received a considerable amount of attention and press during the last several years. School personnel have rapidly moved toward a system based on rigorous standards, assessments, and high-stakes accountability for every student (Nolet and McLaughlin [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref1">22</reflink>]). Clearly, documenting the achievements and educational progress of students is a critical aspect of an appropriate education (Laitusis and Cook [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref2">18</reflink>]). However, many teachers still struggle with the idea that assessment and teaching are reciprocal activities. Instead, some teachers view assessment as an activity that competes with teaching, rather than as an integral part of teaching and learning (Heritage [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref3">16</reflink>]).</p> <p>Teachers' views of assessment, as well as their practices, may be attributed, in part, to minimal attention to assessment in pre and inservice teacher preparation programs. DeLuca and Klinger ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref4">9</reflink>]) noted that assessment courses are few in number in teacher preparation programs. Similarly, Mertler ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref5">21</reflink>]) discovered that inservice teachers noted that they received insufficient preparation in their undergraduate programs to make assessment decisions. Consequently, beginning (Volante and Fazio [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref6">30</reflink>]) and experienced (Conca, Schechter, and Castle [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref7">5</reflink>]) teachers are largely unprepared to use a variety of assessment tools to inform their classroom practice and many lack a deep understanding of formative assessment (DeLuca and Klinger [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref8">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>Informing teachers about formative assessment is important because formative assessment provides teachers with tools to inform their instruction and improve student learning. In fact, in a comprehensive review of literature, Hanover Research ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref9">14</reflink>]) concluded that students who participated in formative assessment measures outperformed their peers (who did not participate in formative assessments) on a variety of achievement indicators. Leaders from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref10">24</reflink>]) arrived at similar conclusions based on their study of the use of formative assessment in eight educational systems. They determined that formative assessment was highly effective in raising the level of student attainment, increasing equity of student outcomes, and improving students' ability to learn. In fact, they described student achievement gains associated with formative assessment among the largest reported for educational interventions. Therefore, with the call for multiple-assessment measures rather than a one-time, high-stakes test to determine student achievement as well as compelling research supporting formative assessment practices, the demand for formative assessments has increased (Pinchok and Brandt [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref11">25</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-2">What is formative assessment?</hd> <p>Formative assessment is a systematic process teachers use to continuously gather evidence about student learning. In fact, Fisher and Frey ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>]) suggested that teachers check for student understanding numerous times throughout the lesson, at least every 5–10 minutes, to maintain the rigor of the lesson and support student learning. Teachers use data from formative assessment to identify a student's current level of learning and adapt future lessons to help students reach the desired learning goal (Heritage [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref13">16</reflink>]). In short, formative assessment refers to feedback provided by teachers to students during their formation stage of learning. Formative assessments are typically teacher and classroom based, opposed to summative assessments used for large-scale assessments outside the classroom (Noonan and Duncan [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref14">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>What makes formative assessment unique is that it is part of the instructional process. When incorporated into classroom practice, student data from formative assessments provide teachers with information to adjust teaching and learning <emph>while</emph> they are happening. Therefore, formative assessment informs both teachers and students about how they are doing; in other words, how teachers are teaching and how students are learning.</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-3">Advantages for teachers and students</hd> <p>Formative assessment provides several advantages for teachers and students. For teachers, data from formative assessments informs instructional decision-making. First, data provides information about student learning. Teachers can quickly identify and correct common student errors or misconceptions. Student misconceptions, or inaccurate or incomplete ideas about a concept or process, are common and present in any discipline (Savion [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref15">29</reflink>]). Teachers should address these early, so error learning does not continue. Checking student understanding early and frequently serves as a proactive measure to ensure students have the necessary skills, knowledge, and understanding to advance in the curriculum. Formative assessment also indicates skills students have mastered, so teachers spend less time reviewing or re-teaching already mastered skills.</p> <p>Secondly, data from formative assessment informs classroom instruction. Teachers decide to reteach or advance in the curriculum based on student data. If students make errors, teachers re-teach, and if students respond correctly, teachers advance. In short, teachers may think they are being clear, but students may misunderstand examples or directions and need the concept presented in a different way. Reviewing student responses from formative assessments and maintaining an error analysis tally sheet helps teachers prioritize re teaching priorities. Table 1 shows an example of an error analysis sheet from exit slips asking students to summarize the main idea from a presentation from a middle level social studies class.</p> <p>Table 1. Example of error analysis.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Errors</td><td>Tally</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1. Wrote a correct detail from today's presentation rather than a main idea</td><td /></tr><tr><td>2. Wrote a main idea from class but not one based on today's presentation</td><td /></tr><tr><td>3. Wrote a main idea but one that was not correct (e.g., indicated a misconception or misunderstanding)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>4. Did not write anything on the exit slip</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>However, knowing when to advance to the next skill and when to reteach is not an easy decision. The guiding principle in making this decision flows from the relative instructional importance of the skill or body of knowledge. Essential, as well as foundational skills, that are necessary for subsequent skills need more stringent performance levels than less important ones (Popham [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref16">27</reflink>]). Therefore, teachers need to determine in advance the required level of mastery for individual student performance as well as the required level for the whole class. For example, a teacher might decide that individual students need to correctly answer five of six questions on the formative assessment, and that they will adjust instruction if three-fourths of the students do not meet this mastery level. Some researchers have recommended that when more than 20% of students make an error, it is time to pause and reteach or review the information (Friend and Bursuck [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref17">11</reflink>]). Again, this depends on the importance of the skill.</p> <p>Formative assessment also provides advantages to students. For students, formative assessment serves as a self-checking measure, especially when they receive <emph>specific feedback</emph> on their performance. Based on such feedback, students can determine skills or content they still need to review. Formative assessments also inform students regarding what the teacher considers important. Students with disabilities, particularly, often need support focusing on what is important in a unit of study due to issues with attention, perception, sequencing, memory, organization, reasoning, and metacognition (Gore [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref18">13</reflink>]). Formative assessment often clarifies important concepts and provides students with one more contact with the main ideas of the curriculum. For many students, formative assessment serves as a type of low-stakes practice quiz. Garrison and Ehringhaus ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref19">12</reflink>]) encouraged teachers to view formative assessment as "practice." These authors emphasized that teachers should not hold students accountable in "grade book fashion" for skills and concepts they have just learned. Teachers must allow for student practice. Another student advantage of formative assessment is that it provides a brief break in instruction for students to pause and reflect on their learning. In fact, students need to be involved both as assessors of their own learning and resources to other students. Students are often more motivated to learn when they are involved and have ownership of their own work (Garrison and Ehringhaus [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref20">12</reflink>].</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-4">Elements of formative assessment</hd> <p>Formative assessment involves strategic planning on the part of the teacher. Developing a formative assessment involves much more than placing a few review problems on the screen for students to solve at the beginning or end of class. The assessment must be purposeful. Heritage ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref21">16</reflink>]) described four core elements of formative assessment. These include: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref22">1</reflink>) identifying the gap, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref23">2</reflink>) providing specific student feedback, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref24">3</reflink>) involving students, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref25">4</reflink>) noting learning progressions.</p> <p>First, identifying the gap refers to providing tasks that are not too easy nor too difficult. For example, in an English class, while reading a chapter from a novel, formative assessment questions could include a few literal questions from the chapter and an inferential question requiring students to make connections not explicitly stated in the reading. Data, over several iterations of similar assessments over a short period, would provide the teacher with students' skills in writing responses to a variety of comprehension-type questions, which is one of the targeted learning goals for the unit. After reviewing student responses over time, the teacher could identify the gap (e.g., many students need practice making predictions, taking a character's point of view, or describing the author's tone). These skill areas could become target goals for future lessons. Another way to identify the gap is by providing opportunities for students to self-assess their learning. For example, as a formative assessment activity while completing a research project for a health class, students could complete sentence starters such as: I am doing well on (this part of the project), and I need help with (this part of the project). Student responses provide teachers with information to connect with the whole class (i.e., Let us review how to find resources for the project) or with individual students or student groups.</p> <p>Second, providing specific student feedback refers to providing the learner with information that improves or maintains performance (Bruhn et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref26">4</reflink>]). Teachers can deliver feedback in a variety of formats (e.g., spoken, gesture, written). Effective feedback is one of the most powerful influences on students' academic, social, and behavioral learning (Bruhn et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref27">4</reflink>]; Hattie and Timperley [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref28">15</reflink>]). Feedback also increases student's effort and motivation for learning a task (Kennedy et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref29">17</reflink>]).</p> <p>Effective feedback is specific and goal directed (Kennedy et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref30">17</reflink>]). This means that the teacher sets clear learning or performance goals for students and then provides specific feedback that informs students regarding how to improve their performance to meet the goal. For example, a teacher might say, "Molly, you have correctly identified the two main characters in the novel. Well done! Now, let's see if you can think of three facts or traits about each character and write those facts under each character's name." This type of feedback communicates the teacher's goal and actions Molly needs to take to achieve the goal. A non-example of specific goal directed feedback would be, "Good job, Stan. You are doing well. Just keep working until the end of class." This feedback is not specific or goal directed, and it does not share the teacher's goal or how close Stan is toward meeting it.</p> <p>Third, involving students refers to active engagement. Rather than assuming a passive posture, all students respond and participate in the formative assessment activity, so teachers have data for each individual student. Researchers have noted numerous ways to engage students in formative assessments, such as unison-responses, response cards, and electronic-based activities, which we describe in the next section. Self-assessments and peer assessments (such as peer editing for written products or noting each group member's contributions in a project, cooperative learning activity, or lab assignment) also actively engage students and provide teachers with valuable data about how students view themselves and others as learners. Teachers can model how to use rubrics, checklists, or other tools for students to use in peer and self-assessments.</p> <p>Fourth, learning progressions refer to smaller learning steps that lead to the long-range goal. For example, if the ultimate goal, over a two-week unit in math, is for students to solve three-step word problems involving algebra skills using all four operations, the first learning progression might be for students to solve one-step word problems using one operation. Students need to master this skill before they can be successful with more advanced skills. Therefore, teachers need to be skilled in sequencing their instruction, assessing students' skills in prerequisite skills that lead to the overall learning target, and determining appropriate assessment criteria (i.e., 80% accuracy) that students should meet before advancing. Further, teachers need to be aware of supports or accommodations that some students need in order to be successful with the smaller learning steps as well as the overall goal. For example, to demonstrate their ability to solve word problems involving algebra skills, some students might need extra time, a cue card, a calculator, or other supports as noted by their Individualized Educational Program (IEP) or Section 504 plan.</p> <p>In addition to these four elements, Table 2 notes additional characteristics and examples of formative assessments. As noted in Table 2, formative assessments offer much flexibility to teachers.</p> <p>Table 2. Characteristics and examples of formative assessments.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Characteristic</td><td>Example(s)</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Can be used at the beginning, middle, or end of class</td><td>Bell ringer review of math problems as students enter classroom Partner check during the middle of class (i.e., turn to your partner and summarize the five steps of mitosis) Exit slip at end of class asking students to reflect on their understanding of the video</td></tr><tr><td>Short in duration</td><td>One minute matching quiz on literary terms and their definitions</td></tr><tr><td>Can be low tech or higher tech</td><td>Low tech: Hold up a green sheet of paper if you agree with these statements and red sheet if you disagree Higher tech: Unison response clicker systems</td></tr><tr><td>Based on curriculum</td><td>Exit slip based on today's reading which was associated with a critical learning standard</td></tr><tr><td>Can be differentiated</td><td>All students complete items 1–3 on the bell ringer. Students pick one more item (either item 4 or 5) to complete (Item 4 is an easier review item, and item 5 is a challenge item)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0145323226-5">Examples of formative assessments</hd> <p>In this section, we describe several formative assessment methods that middle level teachers can use in their classrooms. This discussion represents those we have observed most frequently in the schools, but they reflect a small subset of assessments available for teachers.</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-6">Unison responses</hd> <p>Unison responses are used perhaps more frequently by elementary teachers than middle level teachers, but they are appropriate for middle schools, as well. Typically, in most classrooms, the teacher asks a question, a few students raise their hands, and the teacher calls on them. The teacher only knows <emph>if these few</emph> students understand. No one else in the class participates, and the same students tend to raise their hand for every question. Consequently, for many students, class discussions or teacher led presentations are passive activities.</p> <p>Unison responses change this. This method involves the teacher asking a review question, pausing to allow student think time, and asking <emph>all students</emph> to provide a verbal response upon a particular cue such as, "Class, let's review a bit before we move on. I am going to ask a question, and I want everyone to answer after I give you a few seconds to think. Here is the first question. What type of government means "rule of the few" and is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people? Think about it. OK, everyone?" Unison responses are most suitable for short verbal responses. All students are encouraged (but not forced) to respond. Teachers observe and listen for who is responding, what responses students provide, and reteach or review as necessary.</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-7">Bell ringers</hd> <p>Bell ringers are warm up activities teachers prepare for students to complete during the first few minutes of class. Typically, they serve as a way to review a previously learned skill. Boettner ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref31">2</reflink>]) noted that bell ringers are a classroom management tool and an educational strategy to get students on task and ready to learn from the minute they walk into the room. Often, teachers provide a bell ringer every day (or on certain days) to establish a class routine. As students individually complete the bell ringer, which typically includes a few questions or problems displayed on the screen, teachers take attendance, answer individual questions, and/or collect homework (Romano [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref32">28</reflink>]). Typically, the class goes over the answers to the bell ringers, students correct their own work, and teachers do not count the scores toward the course grade. Even so, teachers should collect bell ringers, so they can assess how students, collectively, and individually, are progressing with the skills.</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-8">Exit slips</hd> <p>Exit slips are short assessments that students complete at the end of a class session. In its simplest form, an exit slip is an index card or piece of paper on which individual students respond to a teacher-developed prompt (Marzano [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref33">20</reflink>]). Students can also submit their response in electronic form if they use Chromebooks or other electronic devices. Like bell ringers, exit slips often connect students to the day's curriculum by asking them to respond to a question that requires a short written response. Some examples include: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref34">1</reflink>) summarize what you learned today, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref35">2</reflink>) write a main idea and two details from today's class, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref36">3</reflink>) describe one new fact that you learned, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref37">4</reflink>) share a way you can apply today's information to your own life, or (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref38">5</reflink>) pretend you are the teacher and write a quiz question and the answer based on today's class.</p> <p>Additionally, teachers can use exit slips to gather information from students about how they view their own learning. Marzano ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref39">20</reflink>]) described four types of prompts teachers can use for this purpose. These include:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Having students complete a self-assessment of their understanding by asking questions such as: How would you rate your understanding of what we learned in class today on a scale of 1 (I am very confused) to 5 (I understand everything); or What (if anything) confused you today?</item> <p></p> <item> Having students reflect on their effort by asking questions such as: How hard did you work today? Explain why you think you worked at the level you did, or What could you have done today to help yourself learn better?</item> <p></p> <item> Having students reflect on the effectiveness of various instructional strategies by responding to prompts such as: How did the video help you understand information from our reading?</item> <p></p> <item> Having students provide suggestions for the teacher such as: What is something I could do to improve your understanding of the content?</item> </ulist> <p>Responses from these four kinds of questions provide teachers with information they might not typically collect from students. Responses lend themselves well to class discussions about student preferred learning modalities, differentiation, teacher and student roles and responsibilities in learning, student goal setting, and metacognition.</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-9">3-2-1 responses</hd> <p>3-2-1 responses are another version of exit slips. Toward the end of class, the teacher asks all students to write responses to three short answers to a question, two short answers to a different question, and one short answer to a third question. The questions vary, based on the day's activities and the information the teacher desires. For example, some 3-2-1 questions could include: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref40">1</reflink>) Write three things you learned about today's content, two things you found confusing, and one question you would like answered tomorrow; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>) Write three connections you have to today's content, two surprises, and one thing you liked about today's class; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref42">3</reflink>) Write three things you found interesting from class today, two things you already knew, and one thing I can do to help you learn. Varying the questions may keep students interested in completing these, and sharing responses the following day signals to students that teachers value their responses.</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-10">Response cards</hd> <p>Response cards are a low-tech form of unison responses that come in several forms. Typically, they are notecards containing responses (answers) or colored sheets of paper that students display in response to a teacher's question (Conderman and Hedin [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref43">6</reflink>]). Every student in the class is given one red and one green sheet of paper or (generally) four different notecards with a different answer on each notecard. Students hold up their response after hearing a teacher's question. For example, while studying various U. S. presidents, students could receive four notecards, each with a different president name, such as: Nixon, Carter, Obama, and George W. Bush. The teacher asks a question to the class about one of these four presidents, and students hold up the card indicating their answer. This format of response cards is much like a multiple- choice practice activity. Alternatively, the teacher makes a statement to which students respond true (by raising their green sheet of paper) or false (by raising their red sheet of paper). Teachers quickly scan for student responses and discuss the question and answer, as needed.</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-11">Partner activities</hd> <p>Working with a partner is a preferred activity for many middle level students (Akos et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref44">1</reflink>]). Teachers can capitalize upon this preference by having students complete various partner formative assessment activities. For example, at strategic points in class, students can turn to their partner to: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref45">1</reflink>) answer a question or solve a problem posed by the teacher, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref46">2</reflink>) summarize what they learned from the previous learning segment, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref47">3</reflink>) ask a question about what has been discussed, or (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref48">4</reflink>) paraphrase their reading. Partner activities help students check their understanding within a safe emotional space, provide a quick social outlet, and exercise higher-level thinking or problem solving, depending on the prompt.</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-12">Student response systems</hd> <p>An approach similar to response cards, student response systems (i.e., "clickers") are a way to increase student's opportunities to respond during classroom instruction via the use of technology. Student response systems are electronic polling systems that allow students to use a small handheld device, commonly referred to as a "clicker," to respond to multiple- choice and true- false questions posed by the teacher (Blood [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref49">3</reflink>]). The teacher displays student responses on a screen, in the form of a graph, showing the percentage of responders who chose each possible answer choice. The visual display of student responses provides students with immediate feedback about the correctness of their answer, as well as how their answer compares with classmates' answers. The immediate visual display of student responses also allows teachers the opportunity to quickly assess how well students have grasped the concepts just presented and correct student's learning errors or reteach concepts that students missed. Student response systems are effective in increasing student engagement and academic outcomes (Conderman, Bresnahan, and Pedersen [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref50">6</reflink>]; Blood [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref51">3</reflink>]). In addition, students generally report that they like using student response systems and feel that response systems help them pay attention (Conderman, Bresnahan, and Pedersen [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref52">6</reflink>]; Blood [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref53">3</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-13">Kahoot</hd> <p>Kahoot is an online, game-based student response system that provides opportunities for students to engage with classroom material (Licorish et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref54">19</reflink>]). Kahoots are typically short multiple-choice quizzes created by teachers to review learned concepts or gauge students' prior knowledge when introducing new concepts or material. A basic Kahoot account is free, user-friendly, and compatible with most devices that allow internet access like iPhones, Android tablets, and Chromebooks (Plump and LaRosa [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref55">26</reflink>]). Teachers can create Kahoot quizzes, surveys, and discussions by registering online. Kahoot provides users with steps to aid in creating multiple-choice questions for their first Kahoot. After creating a Kahoot, teachers can facilitate a friendly classroom competition that provides immediate feedback to both students and teachers (Dellos [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref56">8</reflink>]; Plump and LaRosa [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref57">26</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0145323226-14">Closing thoughts</hd> <p>Formative assessment is the continuous process of gathering data <emph>while</emph> teaching. This process provides numerous advantages for teachers and students. Therefore, taking time to infuse formative assessment activities frequently and with variety into teaching is time well spent. Teachers can choose from a variety of formative assessments that will provide them with data that informs their instruction. Therefore, the types of assessments teachers develop is limited only by their creativity.</p> <ref id="AN0145323226-15"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref22" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Akos, P., J. Hamm, S. Gordon Mack, and M. Dunaway. 2006. Utilizing the developmental influence of peers in middle school groups. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work 32 (1): 51 – 60. doi: 10.1080/01933920600977648.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref23" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Boettner, E. 2011. Using bell ringers in CTE classroom. Techniques 86 (6): 8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref24" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Blood, E. 2010. Effects of student response systems on participation and learning of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders 35 (3): 214–228.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref25" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Bruhn, A., J. Freeman, R. Hirn, and L. Kern. 2019. Using feedback to improve student outcomes. In High leverage practices for inclusive classrooms, ed. J. McLeskey, L. Maheady, B. Billingsley, M. Brownell, and T. Lewis, 107 – 19. London, UK : Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref7" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Conca, L. M., C. P. Schechter, and S. Castle. 2004. Challenges teachers face as they work to connect assessment and instruction. Teachers and Teaching 10 (1): 59 – 75. doi: 10.1080/13540600320000170927.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref43" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Conderman, G., V. Bresnahan, and T. Pedersen. 2009. 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Principal Leadership 12 (1): 60 – 2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Friend, M., and W. Bursuck. 2019. Including students with special needs: A practical guide for classroom teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Garrison, C., and M. Ehringhaus. 2007. Formative and summative assessments in the classroom. <ulink href="http://www.amle.org/Publications/WebExclusive/Assessment/tabid/1120/Default.aspx">http://www.amle.org/Publications/WebExclusive/Assessment/tabid/1120/Default.aspx</ulink>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gore, M. C. 2004. Successful inclusion strategies for secondary and middle school teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA : Corwin.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hanover Research. 2014. The impact of formative assessment and learning intentions on standard achievement. Washington, DC : Hanover Research.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hattie, J., and H. Timperley. 2007. The power of feedback. 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Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l'éducation 30 (3): 749 – 770. doi: 10.2307/20466661.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Greg Conderman; Erika Pinter and Natalie Young</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref55"></nolink>
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  Data: Formative Assessment Methods for Middle Level Classrooms
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Conderman%2C+Greg%22">Conderman, Greg</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pinter%2C+Erika%22">Pinter, Erika</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Young%2C+Natalie%22">Young, Natalie</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Clearing+House%3A+A+Journal+of+Educational+Strategies%2C+Issues+and+Ideas%22"><i>Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas</i></searchLink>. 2020 93(5):233-240.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: Formative assessment is the process of gathering student data "during" instruction, so teachers can make adjustments to facilitate student learning. Despite the benefits of formative assessment for teachers and students, some teachers do not view formative assessment as an integral part of their instruction. Therefore, this article overviews formative assessment and provides specific examples of various formative assessment methods for middle level teachers.
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