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Relationships between Social Interactions and Acquisitions: Do Mixed Methods Provide Added Value in Physical Education Contexts?

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Title: Relationships between Social Interactions and Acquisitions: Do Mixed Methods Provide Added Value in Physical Education Contexts?
Language: English
Authors: Escalié, Guillaume, Legrain, Pascal (ORCID 0000-0001-6769-1502), Lafont, Lucile
Source: Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. 2022 27(2):144-155.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Descriptors: Physical Education, Interaction, Physical Education Teachers, Teacher Education Programs, Motor Development, Cooperative Learning, Peer Relationship, Verbal Communication, Psychomotor Skills, Peer Teaching, Student Attitudes, Foreign Countries, Mixed Methods Research
Geographic Terms: France
DOI: 10.1080/17408989.2021.1999914
ISSN: 1740-8989
Abstract: Purpose: This article is centered on the Mixed Methods Research (MMR) used by the "Sports Life" research team to analyze the conditions under which social interactions are developed in the physical education (PE) setting and PE teacher training context. Firstly, we focus on the value of combining various types of quantitative data with the verbalization occurrences comprised in the interactive dynamics between students to learn motor skills within dyads or cooperative groups. Secondly, combining self-reported measurements and self-confrontation interviews, we examine whether integrating a cooperative learning design into pre-service teacher training might impact their motivation to teach physical practice later. Finally, because the social interaction issue suggests going beyond the respective roles of student/teacher, a forward-looking debate is conducted on the articulation of data collection in order to handle this complexity in a holistic manner.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2022
Accession Number: EJ1331623
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0155483155;z3x01mar.22;2022Mar03.03:00;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0155483155-1">Relationships between social interactions and acquisitions: do mixed methods provide added value in physical education contexts? </title> <sbt id="AN0155483155-2">Introduction</sbt> <p>Purpose: This article is centered on the Mixed Methods Research (MMR) used by the "Sports Life" research team to analyze the conditions under which social interactions are developed in the physical education (PE) setting and PE teacher training context. Firstly, we focus on the value of combining various types of quantitative data with the verbalization occurrences comprised in the interactive dynamics between students to learn motor skills within dyads or cooperative groups. Secondly, combining self-reported measurements and self-confrontation interviews, we examine whether integrating a cooperative learning design into pre-service teacher training might impact their motivation to teach physical practice later. Finally, because the social interaction issue suggests going beyond the respective roles of student/teacher, a forward-looking debate is conducted on the articulation of data collection in order to handle this complexity in a holistic manner.</p> <p>The aim of this school-based paper is to highlight and illustrate the path that led the Sport Life research team of the University of Bordeaux to use Mixed Methods Research (MMR) for examining the relationships between tutoring interactions and acquisitions in teaching and training situations embedded in physical education (PE) settings (Lafont et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref1">27</reflink>]). This conceptual and methodological reflection contributes to the debate on the complementary nature of quantitative and qualitative data in human and social science applied to PE and sports pedagogy. While experimental and clinical approaches are historically the subject of paradigm wars (Gage [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref2">15</reflink>]), a movement has developed in favor of the emergence of a third research paradigm (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref3">23</reflink>]). This perspective consists in forging the complementarity of these two approaches, on both a theoretical and methodological level.</p> <p>This type of approach fostering the emergence of MMR aims to meet the limits related to data collection only focused on a quantitative or qualitative pole. The complexity and the ecological nature of the social interactions between learners, and learners and teacher had mainly influenced the reflection around the MMR. From a learning point of view, the process was guided by the need access to a better comprehensive understanding of the data articulation in interactive designs in PE. Studying peer tutoring interactions in PE areas involved both understanding interactive processes and measuring their impact on motor or psychosocial acquisitions. For that purpose, a multi-source analysis articulating language and behavioral data seemed to be the only way to give an account of students' intimate experience. From a teaching point of view, studies carried out by our research team raised training issues concerning whether novice teachers faced the problems arising in intervention situations in a variety of contexts. Therefore, the complementarity of quantitative and qualitative data gave the opportunity to access, not only what was being done, but also what was being clearly explained by pre-service teachers when they are involved in the context of professional skills development. Nevertheless, this path towards the MMR revealed the importance of considering whether the articulation issues between various categories of data were supported by a theoretical and epistemological positioning to study the conditions of teaching/training. In PE settings, the variety of concepts and theoretical frameworks used to report on acquisitions is accompanied by a diversification of quantitative and qualitative data, the articulation of which is the subject of explicit examination in this contribution.</p> <p>The first part of this article will discuss and illustrate the potential complementarity of quantitative (motor performance) and qualitative data (verbal exchanges) in the study of social interactions between peers in a PE setting. In the second part, a methodological reflection relative to the collection of data on the tutoring interactions in teacher training with questionnaires and self-confrontation interviews is illustrated. These first two parts have in common to present two illustrations of MMR, articulating quantitative data and language data. However, the verbalizations studied in the two cases do not have the same function. In the first case, the analysis allows understanding the processes of knowledge co-construction in a dyadic design of reciprocal tutoring for the resolution of a motor problem. In the second case, the analysis is helpful for understanding how a preservice teacher or an instructor placed in front of the video recording of his activity, provides explicit reasons in commenting his individual experience and the choices he made within a cooperative learning design. The third part offers a prospective discussion to explain the current issues and questions which drive our research group, relative to the articulation of various types of data.</p> <hd id="AN0155483155-3">1. The complementarity of data in the analysis of peer interactions and acquisition in PE</hd> <p>This first part presents the steps through which researchers have diversified their methodological approaches with regard to the acquisition of motor skills in interactive designs. After theoretical and methodological considerations, some examples of research will illustrate the complexity of the relationship between quantitative and qualitative data in understanding the collective process of problem-solving in PE.</p> <hd id="AN0155483155-4">1.1 The multi-dimensional approach to development and acquisition</hd> <p>The main theoretical framework of our studies is the multi-dimensional approach of social conditions on the acquisition of knowledge and skills (Beaudichon, Verba, and Winnykamen [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref4">3</reflink>]). According to this social constructivist perspective, individual or collective processes contribute to knowledge acquisition or to cognitive development, depending on the context of the task and the interactive context. Thus, co-construction with or without conflict, imitation, and tutoring interaction constitute the interactive processes that contribute concomitantly to the construction of solutions leading to problem-solving. This plural approach relies on three theoretical and methodological perspectives. According to Piagetian constructivism, the development of knowledge depends on interaction with the objects and the physical environment in which children are working more often alone. According to the social cognitive theory (Bandura [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref5">2</reflink>]), learning occurs through observation via self-efficacy processes. In reference to social constructivism (Vygotsky [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref6">44</reflink>]/[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref7">44</reflink>]) and social-cultural approaches (Wood, Bruner, and Ross [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref8">45</reflink>]), adults and more knowledgeable peers play a central role through tutoring and scaffolding processes. For cultural and epistemological reasons, these theoretical approaches differ with regard to the data collected. Piagetian researchers mainly use a clinical-critical approach focused on the qualitative analysis of verbal protocols and actions with objects. In comparison, research on observational learning mainly uses behavioral and psychological scales to assess learning and self-efficacy in reference to Bandura's works ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref9">2</reflink>]). Lastly, research focused on tutoring from a social-cultural perspective (Wood, Bruner, and Ross [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref10">45</reflink>]) relies on both quantitative (performance in a jigsaw-building test) and qualitative data (analysis of social interactions). Although researchers highlighted such differences, these three approaches present focal points (i.e. the importance of the subject's activity in problem-solving supported by adults or peers, the role of cognitive structures and representations, the importance of motivational processes (Tudge and Winterhoff [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref11">41</reflink>])). Moreover, the historical analysis points out the convergence of conceptions more than the competition (Zimmermann [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref12">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>Our key research focused on using this multi-dimensional approach to consider how social interactions between peers, or between the teacher and the pupils influenced the motor skills acquisition, depending on the students' characteristics, the nature of the knowledge to be learned and the content to be taught (Lafont [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref13">25</reflink>]). In accordance with the constructivist and social constructivist approaches (Rovegno and Dolly [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref14">36</reflink>]), this question refers to the conditions for implementing cooperation, imitation, and tutoring designs in experimental and class contexts in PE. The first neo-Piagetian works on social interactions have used quantitative methods. The core of the approach consisted of choosing independent variables (individual <emph>vs.</emph> dyad situation) to examine their impact on the dependent variables (performance in a cognitive test or problem-based situation). The works of Mugny and Doise ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref15">34</reflink>]) incorporating quantitative data in experimental protocols demonstrated the effectiveness of joint social interactions. The quantitative approach consisted of counting the number of subjects who reached a cognitive development stage compared to an individual task. This result examined the hypothesis of the influence of Social Cognitive Conflicts (SCC) on knowledge development when a short interaction between peers of the same cognitive level but with an opposite focus is observed.</p> <p>While the works of the "Sports Life" research team in the field of motor skills have been influenced by both the methods used in the field of social development psychology and social cognitive learning, they have gradually moved towards MMR. The design of the tasks to be carried out in research protocols aimed to meet the content requirements of different physical and sports activities, pupils' characteristics, and pupil-task relations (tasks presenting a challenge for learners, but achievable after successive attempts). In order to gain deeper insight into the impacts of designs (essentially motor and cognitive skills) and the social processes involved, two requirements emerged. The first consisted of defining several dependent variables for measuring behavioral changes. The second consisted of analyzing verbal exchanges and interactive dynamics between partners within dyadic situations or groups for problem-solving.</p> <hd id="AN0155483155-5">1.2. Methodological considerations: analyzing motor skills performance and verbal exchanges b...</hd> <p>The primary concern was to build behavioral scales measuring the development of motor skills organization during learning. These assessment scales based on motor skills gave the opportunity to go further than a simple motor performance measurement (achievement of the goal). For that purpose, the qualitative data were converted under certain statistical conditions to quantitative data. According to Mc Cullagh and Weiss's ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref16">32</reflink>]) conclusion relative to the importance of collecting data relative to "technical" skills performance (i.e. efficient actions to achieve the goal) to evaluate the motor skills acquisition, a dual measurement/assessment approach in sport tasks was used in the first experimental studies in swimming among adolescents (Jenkinson, Naughton, and Benson [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref17">22</reflink>]). Then, it was applied to the learning-method choices in badminton at the middle school (Vincent-Morin and Lafont [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref18">43</reflink>]) and in a handball learning situation (Darnis and Lafont [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref19">9</reflink>]). Through this process, the graded behaviors were based on pupils' behaviors among a panel of subjects outside the sample. The attribution of scores for behavioral problem-solving was carried out on a double-blind sample by trained experts.</p> <p>Despite the predominance of the experimental and quantitative approach, initial studies of the peer social interaction aim to understand the mechanisms responsible for progress and the type of joint solution (Perret-Clermont [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref20">35</reflink>]; Gilly [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref21">19</reflink>]). In the PE domain, the verbal protocols of two participants have been analyzed in order to observe individual participation and interactive dynamics during the learning situation. Moreover, a widening of the theoretical and methodological framework of studies led to a broader categorization of interactive dynamics. In reference to the works by Gilly ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref22">19</reflink>]) which defined four types of dyad verbal exchange, the effect of the single SCC mechanism was discussed. Thus, Darnis and Lafont ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref23">9</reflink>]) identified six interactive modalities in the framework of strategic problem-solving in collective sport: (a) parallel behaviors when there is only a juxtaposition of individual speech; (b) acquiescent mode co-elaboration when one partner agrees with his/her partner's solution; (c) co-construction when each partner provides one part of the solution cumulatively; (d) contradictory confrontations defined by the presence of arguing disagreements leading to a social-cognitive conflict; (e) confrontations without arguments representing an opposition, and (f) tutoring behaviors when one of the partners helps or advises another partner.</p> <p>In addition to the evaluation of acquisitions, our studies sought to analyze verbal exchanges between partners in various sports and for different interactive designs: dyad, fixed, or reciprocal tutoring or cooperative groups. Due to the specificity of motor skills, verbal interactions were situated between the phases (trials) of motor practice, in either groups or dyads, and were more or less organized and structured by the teacher or the experimenter in advance. The qualitative analyses of verbal interactions, in addition to motor performance evaluation and/or measurements, covered several functions (Lafont [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>]): (a) understanding skill and knowledge acquisitions by way of co-construction; (b) assessing the participation of each member of the group or dyad in the problem-solving situation; (c) evaluating improvements and relations between knowledge and know-how the task performed, and (d) understanding the dynamics of the learning process and social relationships. Therefore, for a counter-attack task (2 against 1 + 1) in handball, Darnis and Lafont ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref25">9</reflink>]) demonstrated that processes of co-construction, with or without opposing responses and spontaneous tutoring interaction, yielded more complex behavioral organizations. Additionally, a study in basketball (Lafont, Proeres, and Vallet [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>]) demonstrated the effectiveness of verbal exchanges in cooperative groups for building and implementing game strategies, despite a low rate of SCC. In order to specify the relationships between participants, pragmatic elements (Searle and Vanderveken [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref27">38</reflink>]) reinforced the study of interactions. The analysis thus included several criteria relative to: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref28">1</reflink>) the number of speaking turns (ST), (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref29">2</reflink>) the type of language acts, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref30">3</reflink>) the content of discussions, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref31">4</reflink>) the structuring of statements and their length. These criteria allow to analyze the contents exchanged or transmitted and the complexity of the arguments used for scaffolding the partner's action.</p> <hd id="AN0155483155-6">1.3. Illustration of a mixed analysis in a reciprocal peer tutoring (RPT) design</hd> <p>Fixed and reciprocal tutoring designs between peers were explored relatively late in the field of sports skills and physical activities (Jenkinson, Naughton, and Benson [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref32">22</reflink>]). The analyses were rapidly focused on the comparison between a trained peer tutoring configuration to an untrained one. Based on Shute, Foot, and Morgan's ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref33">39</reflink>]) study in academics, the main hypothesis was the superiority of trained tutors for tutees' learning. This assumption also referred to Legrain, Arripe-Longueville, and Gernigon's ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref34">28</reflink>]) research concerning the tutor effect (benefit for tutors) for sports students. Nevertheless, there were few works focusing on secondary school students. Our studies were carried out on middle school pupils and focused on different sports in PE lessons as for example gymnastics (Cicero and Lafont [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref35">6</reflink>]). These studies had a common goal: highlighting the need to prepare pupils in order for them to effectively fulfill their tutor role in experimental situations and/ or in class for usual school PE tasks. The tutor or coach prepared to scaffold a partner is more able to preserve initiatives; he displays, only if necessary, contingent guidance. Firstly, the motor skill, cognitive, and/ or motivational benefits for the tutees were measured using the quantitative method. Then, following Lund ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref36">31</reflink>]), analyzing verbal exchanges during the time-out opens up new ways of understanding the quantitative effects of the scaffolding process.</p> <p>For this dual aim, Ensergueix and Lafont ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref37">11</reflink>]) conducted a study on reciprocal tutoring in table-tennis, involving a class situation with pupils from four 8th-grade classes, for a total of 92 pupils (44 boys and 48 girls, average age 14.2 years +/−1.2) and 2 PE teachers (a 26-year-old woman (J) and a 30-year-old man (B) over a cycle of 10 lessons). The quantitative data revealed the superiority of classes trained in tutoring compared to non-trained classes, in terms of satisfaction (<emph>p</emph> <.001), self-efficacy (<emph>p</emph> <.001), and motor performance in a competitive situation (<emph>p</emph> <.001). Additionally, qualitative data collected through verbal exchanges between students in trained, and in non-trained dyads provided additional information on the evolution of interactive dynamics for 24 target dyads in the two groups. The main results revealed a difference between exchanges at the end of the unit, according to whether participants were trained or not to interact in their role. At post-test, the Trained Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (TRPT) coaches provided more complex and contingent verbal advice to their partner related to hypothetical-deductive reasoning (action rules such as "if ... then"). Furthermore, according to the tutee's needs, the coaches were better able to preserve the initiative to their partner on game strategies. The coaches could explain the means and techniques used to reach the goal; they displayed, if necessary, contingent and adjusted modeling. Comparatively, in the Untrained Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (URPT) condition, more short and directive instructions focused on the score and partial information related to the player were collected ("Coach<emph>: You won, but you could have done much better cause you got 11 points without a bonus."</emph>).</p> <p>An example of the exchanges during time-out between coach (C) and player (P) is presented for a target dyad in TRPT condition at the end of the unit. As explained above, the analysis is based on the contents delivered by the tutor (explanations), the capacity to preserve the participation of the player and the contingency of the advice or guidance. Following the definition of Van de Pol, Volman, and Beishuizen ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref38">42</reflink>]), an interaction was coded as contingent because the coach (C) used information gathered about the player (P):</p> <p>C: So, do you think you chose the right strong point?</p> <p>P: Eh, I think I chose the right strong point because I'm faster, but I'm also good at this position and if I could have taken both, I would have had lots of points, but we can't take two so I took the position, uh no, speed, and I played fast and my opponent wasn't expecting me to play fast.</p> <p> <emph>C asks P open-ended questions, and solicits his participation in the analysis of tactical choices. The player is active and his verbalizations are complex</emph>.</p> <p>C: So, eh ... that's done ... Look at the game sheet; otherwise, eh ... do you think you would be better at the position?</p> <p>P: It's not that I'd be better, but I'd be good, but I'm better at speed than position. I'm good at the position, but not as good as for speed. <emph>P. explains his choices, taking account of his own competencies</emph>.</p> <p>C: So, next ... on the other hand, there's just a small problem, it's that ... give me your racket for a sec (demonstration), sometimes you hit the ball ... C (a pupil), she served the ball and you missed it because your racket was too open</p> <p> <emph>C displays contingent modeling (total, partial, and stylization)</emph>.</p> <p>These observations confirm those of Fuchs et al. ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref39">14</reflink>]) in mathematics comprising fixed tutoring. Moreover, they are consistent with Iserbyt's ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref40">20</reflink>]) conclusions examining in a PE context, the relevance of structuring verbal exchanges in structured RPT dyads. However, while the motor performance measure and the analysis of interactive dynamics were complementary, they did not include the collection of qualitative data 'in the first person'.</p> <hd id="AN0155483155-7">2. Articulating measurement and self-confrontation interviews: added-value for studies in phy...</hd> <p>This second part shifts the reflection for considering the added-value of MMR in the peer tutoring interactions implemented in teacher training programs. According to the Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) guidelines, we first introduce the outlines of a study devoted to a Cooperative Learning (CL) implementation in a PETE program and examine its impact on Physical Education Preservice Teachers (PE-PTs) motivation for restructuring the classroom (Cohen [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref41">7</reflink>]). Second, we detailed the methodological protocol for data collection designed to articulate self-reported data extracted from questionnaires and language data extracted from self-confrontation interviews. Finally, the relevance of MMR is discussed, highlighting the process of PE-PTs acculturation to cooperative learning and motivational benefits of being trained under such social conditions for redesigning PE lessons.</p> <hd id="AN0155483155-8">2.1. Implementing cooperative training design in a PETE program</hd> <p>Considering the current challenge in PETE to experiment with various instructional models, the opportunities for PE-PTs to integrate cooperative designs into training are too rare (Zach and Cohen [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref42">46</reflink>]). Although direct instruction is the most instructional environment used (Jayantilal and O'Leary [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref43">21</reflink>]), CL designs such as Jigsaw[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref44">1</reflink>] can be considered opportune alternatives to produce motivational, emotional, and cognitive effects (Casey and Goodyear [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref45">4</reflink>]). Nevertheless, in pre-service teacher preparation, such educational configurations are most commonly presented during classroom lectures without practical work. This curriculum approach suggests that learning to teach doesn't allow to bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical knowledge (Cheng, Cheng, and Tang [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref46">5</reflink>]). Beyond the social cognitive foundations of CL, little content knowledge is devoted to the teacher's activity designed to actively engage and maintain the students in the group task. This also suggests questioning the methodological conditions under which this integration of CL into initial and in-service training would impact the PE-PTs' motivation to restructure the classroom by implementing cooperative learning configurations (Cohen [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref47">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Recently, studies based on quasi-experimental design were conducted in our research team to compare several instructional conditions: (a) Direct Instruction, in which the instructor explains and demonstrates sports techniques helping students to build new motor skills, (b) Jigsaw Experience (JE), in which students are polled in a team and split into specific areas to build expertise before coming back to their team for instruction, (c) Jigsaw Two Group, in which the instructor provides students with instructional knowledge during the expert phase helping them to go beyond the motor contents and focus on teaching strategies. A study (Legrain and Escalié [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref48">29</reflink>]) was carried out considering whether the instructional environments would influence both PE-PTs' professional competencies and motivation to integrate CL conditions in their future teaching. In this second study, among the sixty-nine PE-PTs (mean age = 21 years ± 1.5), 21 participants (14 males and 7 females); 28 participants (20 males and 8 females), and 20 participants (12 males and 8 females) were respectively assigned to one of the three conditions. From a quantitative standpoint, and according to the self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref49">10</reflink>]), several data related to psychosocial variables were collected through questionnaires. It was expected that both JTG and JE training conditions would lead to higher participants' perceived autonomy support provided by the instructor (Gillet et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref50">18</reflink>]), (b), and basic need satisfaction for autonomy (Gillet, Rosnet, and Vallerand [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref51">17</reflink>]), than DI condition. Furthermore, JTG participants who received instructional knowledge were expected to score higher on the three variables than JE participants.</p> <hd id="AN0155483155-9">2.2. Methodological considerations: articulating questionnaires and self-confrontation interv...</hd> <p>MMR was chosen and implemented in the planning-conception phase of the methodological design according to precautions provided by recent studies on both CL (Long, Readdy, and Raabe [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref52">30</reflink>]; Moran, Matthews, and Kirby [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref53">33</reflink>]), and motivation (Ryan, Soenens, and Vansteenkiste [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref54">37</reflink>]) literature recommending the use of mixed methods.</p> <p>On a qualitative standpoint, data were collected during the experimental phase of the protocol, that is, between the pre-test and the post-test, through self-confrontation interviews. These interviews, based on extracts from training situations recorded with a video camera and a lapel microphone during three practice sessions in initiation to a new physical activity (French boxing), were conducted separately with the instructor, and two participants, corresponding to the JE and JTG conditions. According to Stone, Deci, and Ryan's ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref55">40</reflink>]) prescription, open-ended questions (i.e. "tell me what is happening at this moment of the instruction sequence?") were used to help the participants to comment on their actions during the training session. Asking for additional information or pointing out apparent contradictions ("Could you tell me why you consider your presentation as unclear?"; "Could you give me the reasons why you are questioning him at this time?"), the researcher prompted the actor to support the first meaning they had made about the actions they had commented. Then, he asked PE-PST to specify the expected effects regarding the observed actions ("What are you looking for when you ask that question?").</p> <p>The results on perceived autonomy support showed that JE participants revealed a higher level of autonomy support than both JTG (<emph>p</emph> <.001), and DI (<emph>p</emph> <.01) participants. Additionally, JE participants scored higher on the satisfaction of the need for autonomy (<emph>p</emph> <.006) than JTG participants. Moreover, JE and JTG participants' intrinsic motivation for implementing CL design increased from pre-test to post-test (<emph>p</emph> =.001).</p> <p>Although these results were consistent with the self-determination theory, they did not support our hypothesis. In particular, the difference between JE and JGT participants on perceived autonomy support and satisfaction of the need for autonomy was relatively unexpected. In addition, the lack of improvement in self-efficacy for instruction needed to be clarified. It was expected that the self-confrontation data would opportunely provide additional clarification in explaining such quantitative results. The current purpose is to present the qualitative data extracted in association with the aforementioned quantitative data about perceived autonomy support. In the following extract, the instructor reported the instructional strategy specifically chosen for the participants of JE condition when demonstrating and presenting a task verbally during the expert-group phase.</p> <p>Researcher (R): And here, what are you doing in this instruction sequence?</p> <p>Instructor (I): So there, I have just modeled various skills comprised in the demonstration of a movement related to instructional expertise. Firstly, I check that any PST is behind me, to maintain good observational conditions for everyone. Secondly, after a first demonstration, I change the sparring partner's position to help the participants observe the movement better, from different angles. Finally, according to the complexity of the movement, I prefer to demonstrate the movement myself at different speeds rather than asking a novice teacher to be in charge of this demonstration.</p> <p>R: But all of that is primarily implicit and not related to explicit explanations that would be given with regard to the instructional strategies used.</p> <p>I: Yes, but I asked PE-PSTs to pay attention to the teaching techniques I used so they would be ready to instruct peers when returning to their team. At this stage, I prefer that it comes from them, identifying the reasons why I take these precautions rather than giving them answers. While giving them various opportunities to observe instructional sequences, I can expect they will identify common methodological patterns embedded in teaching tasks.</p> <p>At this stage of the self-confrontation interview, the instructor indicated that he cared about providing participants with autonomy support, avoiding controlling completely instructional behavior. This would explain why JE participants, who didn't receive instructional knowledge, perceived the instructor as more autonomy-supportive with regard to the free choice comprised in this context where no explicit reference model was provided for the Jigsaw period ("<emph>I prefer that it comes from them"</emph>). It might be considered that such an instructional climate would positively impact the PE-PTs' perception of autonomy and satisfaction of the need for autonomy. This could also explain why the participants of the JTG condition who were explicitly provided with several pointers on the instructional guidelines for managing a CL environment were less inclined to perceive an autonomy-supportive climate during the training session. This hypothesis could be confirmed by the following self-confrontation extract in which a PE-PST of the JTG condition explicit the influence of the instructional knowledge provided by the instructor on the choice of his teaching strategy.</p> <p>R: What do you do at this point?</p> <p>PE-PST: In fact, I gave them feedback at first, and then, as I went through the other groups and came back to them, I saw if they had understood what I had asked them to do ... my correction. And afterward, if they haven't understood, I explain it to them again and ... or I demonstrate it to them, well I simulate the gesture a little so that they can better visualize the movement</p> <p>R: And what do you show?</p> <p>PE-PST: I show them the movement to be carried out and I show them above all ... I don't explain the whole movement to them but particularly the part that is missing. So, for example, when it's a question of rotation of the foot, and it's just the foot that has to be rotated and which then push the upper limbs, I insist on this element.</p> <p>R: And this strategy, where does it come from?</p> <p>PE-PST: The trainer told us about it in the video presentation before we started the practice. He explained to us, with videos to back it up, why he was doing it. And he told us, for example, by showing us a video that he was only correcting one element. Because the movement was generally correct but that element was not good and could hinder future learning.</p> <p>The qualitative data provided additional elements for discussing the quantitative results and better understanding that a training condition such as JTG might lead to improvements in content knowledge acquisition that are not concomitant with motivational benefits and self-efficacy beliefs for instruction.</p> <hd id="AN0155483155-10">3. Conclusive discussion: contemporary issues on MMR for pedagogical research on social inter...</hd> <p>Based on the analysis of theoretical and methodological developments by a research team, this article aims to illustrate and discuss the potential added value of linking quantitative and qualitative data in order to study the conditions of social interactions implemented in collective learning designs and physical education teacher training. Although recommendations for using mixed methods have rarely been followed for analyzing the potential correspondence between qualitative and quantitative data, our theoretical and methodological assumptions seem relevant for exploring the students' interaction or PE-PTs' activity in the field of interactive designs and engineering.</p> <p>Firstly, we set out the steps that led to the analysis of verbal exchanges between peers to better understand the quantitative effects (performance, SE) of collective designs (CL, RPT, dyads). In this type of research, priority was given to experimental and quantitative comparisons; the analysis of the interactive dynamics between peers (qualitative) allowed for a better understanding of the effects to be measured. It provided information about: (a) the awareness of the strategies and means used to achieve the goals; (b) the co-construction processes of knowledge and skills and (c) the participation of each partner in problem-solving.</p> <p>The original use of MMR in this study presented in the second part is related to the reflections on the link between self-reported questionnaires and self-confrontation interviews. This coupling is currently supported by an epistemological consideration that interconnects a transdisciplinary theoretical framework commensurate with the psychological anthropology of teacher education (Escalié et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref56">13</reflink>]). More specifically, this program focused on culturalist anthropology (Escalié and Chaliès [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref57">12</reflink>]) incorporates elements of a psycho-social approach into a broader framework oriented towards a comprehensive understanding of PE-PTs training experiences. The proposed combination of self-confrontation interviews and questionnaires could be informed by various existing models of mixed methods, with reference to the classification proposed by Creswell and Plano Clark ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref58">8</reflink>]). According to this study, protocols could be designed using a "sequential" approach, whereby the quantitative data collected in the pre-test and post-test questionnaires could be used to "guide" a more targeted approach to data gathering in the self-confrontation exercise.</p> <p>Considering the works presented, it is important to specify that qualitative data are intended to be explanatory more than illustrative with regard to quantitative data. In the first part, verbal exchanges between the tutor and tutee inform the co-construction processes that support the problem-solving activity within the dyad. In a complementary way, these linguistic data provided explanations regarding the differences observed between the two learning conditions on specific determinants of motor improvements (Lafont et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref59">27</reflink>]). In the second part, data extracted from self-confrontation provide information on whether the tutor endorsed his role as part of the cooperative learning configuration. These qualitative data bring added value to the statistical results relative to the perceived instructional climate by the PE-PTs.</p> <p>Among the questions that arise from the methodological designs presented in this article, three points appear to be particularly important to the topic and open new perspectives in terms of mixed method.</p> <p>The first relates to the various types of data enabling the documentation of motor activity. In fact, the works presented in the first part are characterized by the cross-referencing of language-based, psycho-social, and motor skills data to study the conditions for the effectiveness of the interactive designs implemented. While language and psycho-social data have regularly been documented combining first and third-person data, to date, motor skills have been documented essentially from third-person data. Therefore, performance scores or the observation of behavioral transformation in motor skills are collected, for the most part, using the double-blind expert coding procedure. Yet a heuristic MMR would enable cross-referencing of this behavioral data with mastery levels, in reference to models characterizing expertise and more subjective aspects involving intentions, sensations, perceptions, or emotions experienced by the participant while performing the skills studied (Ganière and Cizeron [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref60">16</reflink>]).</p> <p>The second point pertains to the functional complementarity of the data collection used. The respective role attributed to each tool in the interpretation of findings needs to be considered carefully. In the first study, the verbal data collected allow us to highlight the interactive processes within a peer interaction period. Quantitative performance data are prioritized; the processes of scaffolding and co-construction through verbalization give better access to the sharing of knowledge to achieve the common goal. The precautions concern the criteria for the initial matching of working partners so that each dyad functions and communicates. Furthermore, interpretation can only be provided by relating the interactive dynamics to motor progress over the unit. Similarly, in the design presented in the second part, the self-confrontation data must be interpreted with caution insofar as they do not have a demonstrative force but rather an explanatory force making assumptions about the quantitative results. The credibility of the hypotheses certainly depends on the level of adequacy between the variable measured and the interview guide. Such a reflection suggests finding a balance between preserving the epistemological options underlying the self-confrontation interviews (which implies giving priority to the actor's point of view when commenting on his action) and adapting the interview guide.</p> <p>The third question relates to the depth of the analysis of teaching-learning situations our team is focusing on. According to the Piagetian constructivism point of view, works tend to study these situations by placing the focus on either the pupils' acquisitions or the construction of professional skills in teachers. However, under a social-cultural viewpoint of learning/training, the focus is placed on the opportunity to understand the global ecology of the class through the analysis of interactive situations. This exercise enhances the relevance of coupling data collected from pupils and teachers. However, such a focus also raises the issue of methodological tools with regard to the participants' characteristics. In particular, according to young children's explanatory skills, self-confrontation interviews may be difficult to achieve. Similarly, the use of questionnaires with teachers may be considered simplistic and reductive, if not threatening with respect to the professional activity.</p> <p>Our research team is aware of methodological difficulties related to the challenge to document the effect of teacher training in the implementation of cooperative learning designs on pupils' learning behavior. Data based on both teachers' activity and pupils' acquisitions and well-being in the context of PE classroom, via questionnaires and self-confrontation interviews, are still considered relevant. Innovative MMR designs oriented through meta-inferences need to be further developed opening the way for the definition of a new unit of analysis to understand the "contingency" (Van de Pol, Volman, and Beishuizen [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref61">42</reflink>]) of the interactive situations.</p> <hd id="AN0155483155-11">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0155483155-12"> <title> Note </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref28" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> In reference to Aronson's historical account (Aronson and Patnoe [1]), Jigsaw is a CL environment in which students are arranged into heterogeneous teams, but are homogeneous between themselves according to gender, race and personal academic performance considerations to reach a common goal. 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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Education%22">Physical Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interaction%22">Interaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Education+Teachers%22">Physical Education Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Education+Programs%22">Teacher Education Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Motor+Development%22">Motor Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cooperative+Learning%22">Cooperative Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Relationship%22">Peer Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Verbal+Communication%22">Verbal Communication</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychomotor+Skills%22">Psychomotor Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Teaching%22">Peer Teaching</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mixed+Methods+Research%22">Mixed Methods Research</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22France%22">France</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/17408989.2021.1999914
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1740-8989
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Purpose: This article is centered on the Mixed Methods Research (MMR) used by the "Sports Life" research team to analyze the conditions under which social interactions are developed in the physical education (PE) setting and PE teacher training context. Firstly, we focus on the value of combining various types of quantitative data with the verbalization occurrences comprised in the interactive dynamics between students to learn motor skills within dyads or cooperative groups. Secondly, combining self-reported measurements and self-confrontation interviews, we examine whether integrating a cooperative learning design into pre-service teacher training might impact their motivation to teach physical practice later. Finally, because the social interaction issue suggests going beyond the respective roles of student/teacher, a forward-looking debate is conducted on the articulation of data collection in order to handle this complexity in a holistic manner.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1331623
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1331623
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/17408989.2021.1999914
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 144
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Physical Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Education Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Education Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Motor Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cooperative Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Peer Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Verbal Communication
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychomotor Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Peer Teaching
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mixed Methods Research
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: France
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Relationships between Social Interactions and Acquisitions: Do Mixed Methods Provide Added Value in Physical Education Contexts?
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Escalié, Guillaume
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Legrain, Pascal
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lafont, Lucile
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2022
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1740-8989
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 27
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy
              Type: main
ResultId 1