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A Systematic Review of Research on High-Immersion Virtual Reality for Language Learning

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Title: A Systematic Review of Research on High-Immersion Virtual Reality for Language Learning
Language: English
Authors: Dhimolea, Tetyana Kucher, Kaplan-Rakowski, Regina, Lin, Lin
Source: TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning. Sep 2022 66(5):810-824.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Literature Reviews, Educational Research, Computer Simulation, Second Language Learning, Electronic Learning, Vocabulary Development, Student Attitudes
DOI: 10.1007/s11528-022-00717-w
ISSN: 8756-3894
1559-7075
Abstract: Virtual reality (VR) can be beneficial for learning and for increasing learners' engagement and motivation. However, aggregations of studies on language learning in high-immersion VR are scarce. This paper offers a systematic review of existing research on VR-based language learning, encompassing 32 peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2020. The study yielded three main language-related findings: (1) multiple exposures to VR are necessary for effective learning; (2) VR is beneficial for contextual vocabulary learning; and (3) perceptions of language learning in VR are positive, but its effectiveness is inconclusive. We also describe VR technology trends, VR content used in language learning, and learners' perceptions of learning languages in VR. This systematic review is useful for language educators, researchers, and VR app developers.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2022
Accession Number: EJ1348085
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0159055426;ttr01sep.22;2022Sep14.01:47;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0159055426-1">A Systematic Review of Research on High-Immersion Virtual Reality for Language Learning </title> <p>Virtual reality (VR) can be beneficial for learning and for increasing learners' engagement and motivation. However, aggregations of studies on language learning in high-immersion VR are scarce. This paper offers a systematic review of existing research on VR-based language learning, encompassing 32 peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2020. The study yielded three main language-related findings: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) multiple exposures to VR are necessary for effective learning; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) VR is beneficial for contextual vocabulary learning; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>) perceptions of language learning in VR are positive, but its effectiveness is inconclusive. We also describe VR technology trends, VR content used in language learning, and learners' perceptions of learning languages in VR. This systematic review is useful for language educators, researchers, and VR app developers.</p> <p>Keywords: CALL; Immersion; Language learning; Systematic review; Virtual reality</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Virtual reality (VR) has received substantial attention due to its ability to augment learners' motivation, engagement, and learning outcomes (Makransky & Lilleholt, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref4">33</reflink>]). One benefit of VR over conventional learning methods is that students experience and actively engage with the subject matter rather than learn passively (Radianti et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref5">49</reflink>]). The immersive nature of VR promotes students' deep learning, long-term retention (Rizzo et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref6">51</reflink>]), and enjoyment (Lee, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref7">28</reflink>]). A meta-analysis by Merchant et al. ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref8">35</reflink>]) confirms positive educational outcomes of VR.</p> <p>Unlike other platforms, immersive VR has the potential to offer contextualized experiential language learning. Scholars and practitioners have increasingly been investigating the affordances of VR-assisted language learning (VRALL). Studies show that VR serves as a low-anxiety platform (Gruber & Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref9">16</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref10">17</reflink>]; Thrasher, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref11">56</reflink>]) and offers an authentic space to practice speaking (Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref12">23</reflink>]), listening (Lee, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref13">28</reflink>]), writing (Pack et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref14">40</reflink>]), communicative abilities (Yang et. Al, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref15">62</reflink>]), and vocabulary (Legault et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref16">29</reflink>]; Papin & Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref17">42</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref18">43</reflink>]). Therefore, immersive VR has the potential to be successfully implemented in language learning to facilitate students' second or foreign language learning by offering authentic communicative opportunities, improving language learning outcomes, and strengthening cultural competence. The growing popularity of VR technologies and the increasing interest in their application for language education emphasize the importance of understanding the most effective ways to incorporate VR for language teaching and learning. In this article, we review, synthesize, and identify trends in VRALL research and practices.</p> <p>Existing reviews on VRALL (e.g., Lin & Lan, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref19">30</reflink>]) mostly focused on language learning in low-immersion VR (LiVR), which is experienced using a 2D monitor, a mouse, and a keyboard, while high-immersion VR (HiVR) is experienced using a VR headset. Since the time of LiVR reviews, advances in technology have provided increased affordability of and easier access to VR headsets, offering more opportunities for researching and learning in HiVR.</p> <p>Given that learning in HiVR provides increased agency (Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref20">23</reflink>]), embodiment, and a much higher sense of presence (Makransky et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref21">34</reflink>]) than LiVR, we found it necessary to conservatively focus only on reviewing HiVR studies. To date, a pure systematic review of VRALL studies focusing on HiVR does not exist. We, therefore, fill this gap by reviewing relevant studies published between 2015 and 2020. We chose 2015 as the starting point because prior to 2015, most research had been conducted with a focus on LiVR rather than HiVR technology (Lin & Lan, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref22">30</reflink>]; Parmaxi, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref23">44</reflink>]). Our review will help language educators and learners better understand the affordances of VRALL experiences, simultaneously informing of existing research gaps.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-3">Background</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0159055426-4">Low- and High-Immersion VR</hd> <p>Even though the term VR is broadly used to refer to a wide range of digital environment experiences, we follow the distinction introduced by Kaplan-Rakowski and Gruber ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref24">22</reflink>]) between LiVR and HiVR. LiVR, sometimes referred to as "desktop VR," is experienced on a flat screen where interactions take place through keyboard or mouse manipulations. LiVR provides lower levels of immersion than HiVR.</p> <p>HiVR is defined as "a computer-generated 360° virtual space that can be perceived as being spatially realistic due to the high immersion afforded by a head-mounted device" (Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref25">22</reflink>], p. 552). To experience HiVR, users wear a VR headset, also referred to as head-mounted display (HMD). Head-tracking allows users to see the surrounding scenes in 360° by turning their head in any direction. Being able to move the field of view with the head movement increases the sense of presence and intensifies immersion. Users interact with HiVR content by using the buttons on the headset, a controller, or haptic systems. Figure 1 depicts users experiencing LiVR and HiVR. We restrict our focus to HiVR and exclude studies on other technologies (e.g., augmented reality, mixed reality).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Depictions of Low-Immersion VR (Left) vs High-Immersion VR (Right)</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-5">Previous Reviews</hd> <p>Given the distinction between LiVR and HiVR and the increasing impact of HiVR on teaching and learning languages, we identified a growing need to narrow down the scope to focus solely on HiVR studies. Five systematic reviews thus far exist on high-immersion VRALL: Huang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref26">20</reflink>]), Palmeira et al. ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref27">41</reflink>]), Parmaxi, ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref28">44</reflink>]), Peixoto et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref29">46</reflink>]), and Qiu et al. ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref30">48</reflink>]); see Appendix A for their summary. Palmeira et al. ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref31">41</reflink>]) focused only on vocabulary learning, including nine studies. The review scope lacked a specific starting point, and it ended in 2019, prior to the publication of impactful studies published in 2020 (e.g., Alfadil, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref32">3</reflink>]; Hartfill et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref33">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>Parmaxi ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref34">44</reflink>]) reviewed 26 studies published between 2015 and mid-2018. She identified the use of VR technologies and language learning settings, and she outlined pros and cons of VRALL. Even though Parmaxi uses the term VR throughout her paper, the review does not distinguish between LiVR and HiVR. Consequently, studies on both types of VR are analyzed together. Only two studies in the review focused on HiVR (Parmaxi et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref35">45</reflink>]; Vázquez et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref36">58</reflink>]). Parmaxi also admitted: "Current literature on VR for language learning is focusing mainly on non- or semi-immersive VR. Thus, more research is needed on fully immersive systems that are currently available which can provide a richer and more efficient learning experience" (p. 9).</p> <p>The review by Peixoto et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref37">46</reflink>]) included 30 studies and identified features, educational methods, technologies, and gaps in VRALL. The time range of the search was unspecified, and the VR immersion level was undefined in the eligibility criteria. Consequently, the review focused on both LiVR and HiVR without distinguishing between those technologies. Moreover, the VRALL findings were presented without the reference to the development of specific language skills, while we address this topic in our review.</p> <p>Huang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref38">20</reflink>]) reviewed the trends in VR combined with augmented reality (AR) technology for facilitating language learning. They identified 88 studies published between 2011 and 2020. While offering findings on learners' motivation, perceptions, and learning achievement, the authors referred to the "similar nature" of VR and AR technologies, but without addressing the differences between them. AR technologies integrate additional information into the user's real world, making them constantly aware of the real-world surroundings. Meanwhile, VR technologies generate fully virtual environments (Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref39">31</reflink>]) and wearing a VR headset disconnects users from the outside world (Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref40">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>A review by Qiu et al. ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref41">48</reflink>]) also focused on both VR and AR, covering 150 studies published between 2008 and 2019. Their identified trends included the type of VR (e.g., LiVR, HiVR, smartphone-based, tablet-based), learning goals, and research methods. The authors combined the research on VR and AR technologies without recognizing differences between them. As shown in previous research and supported by relevant theories (Tang et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref42">55</reflink>]), immersion, sense of presence, and embodiment largely differ while using VR and AR technologies. Our study consistently reviewed HiVR, strictly controlling for extraneous variables. Appendix A summaries published reviews on VRALL.</p> <p>Building on prior reviews and studies, our review contributes to the existing literature in several ways. First, our review is purposefully conservative by including only HiVR due to its unique affordances. Second, we extend our search to the studies published in 2020. Third, we analyze how VRALL publications studied writing, reading, speaking, listening, oral communication, and pronunciation. The scope of existing reviews was limited to vocabulary (Palmeira et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref43">41</reflink>]), technology trends (Parmaxi, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref44">44</reflink>]; Qiu et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref45">48</reflink>]), or students' perceptions (Huang et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref46">20</reflink>]; Peixoto et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref47">46</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-6">Research Questions</hd> <p>This systematic review examines trends in research on high-immersion VRALL. It further identifies specific learning outcomes possible to achieve through different types of HiVR (henceforth referred to as VR). Our research questions are:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Research Question 1 (RQ1). What are the trends in VRALL for research and practices?</item> <p></p> <item> Research Question 2 (RQ2). What is the impact of VRALL research on learning outcomes within specific language domains?</item> <p></p> <item> Research Question 3 (RQ3). What are learners' perceptions of VRALL?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0159055426-7">Methodology</hd> <p>This review involved an electronic search of the VRALL literature between January 2015 and December 2020 to capture a wide overview of the topic. Year 2015 was chosen as the starting point because it is the approximate time when low-cost VR headsets became widely available (Kaplan-Rakowski & Meseberg, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref48">25</reflink>]). Moreover, the development of an affordable VR solution such as Google Cardboard in 2014 and its wide adoption since 2015 has prompted researchers to conduct VRALL research. The section below describes each step in the review process.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-8">Search Strategy</hd> <p>To ensure a comprehensive overview of relevant publications, we searched articles and conference proceedings in the following seven databases: <emph>ACM Digital Library, Directory of Open Access Journals, Google Scholar, IEEExplore, Science Direct, Springer Link,</emph> and <emph>Taylor & Francis</emph>. To verify that no articles were missed from the search, we incorporated the searching procedures proposed by Cooper ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref49">9</reflink>]) by conducting independent search on journal websites and examining reference lists of each relevant publication to identify potential studies that would fit our search criteria. We also used "cited by" function in Google Scholar which tracks studies cited in other publications. This function allowed us to review the publications that had cited studies identified as relevant to our review.</p> <p>Guided by Wang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref50">59</reflink>]) keyword search method, we conducted the search using two sets of keywords. The first set included the keywords that referred to VR technologies. The second set contained the words referring to language learning. Based on literature and our expertise, we excluded articles that mentioned the terms "Second Life" or "augmented" as they are frequently associated with VR but relate to HiVR only indirectly.</p> <p>Boolean operators were used through most of the online search. Some operators needed to be modified according to the databases search options. The following is the general formula used to identify relevant articles: <emph>("VR" OR "virtual reality") AND ("second" OR "foreign" OR "English" AND "language learning") NOT ("augmented" OR "second life").</emph></p> <p>In the subsequent screening process, explicit eligibility criteria guided our study. For manuscripts to be included in our review, they needed to meet the following criteria:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Use HiVR technology,</item> <p></p> <item> Focus on second or foreign language teaching and learning,</item> <p></p> <item> Report the results of an empirical study using quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods,</item> <p></p> <item> Published in a peer-reviewed journal or conference proceedings in English, and</item> <p></p> <item> Report unique findings.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0159055426-9">Data Collection</hd> <p>We chose Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA; Moher et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref51">36</reflink>]) as the basis for the study identification and selection process. The PRISMA procedures are identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion. We modified the PRISMA model by combining the processes of identification and screening to increase the efficiency of the selection process. Consequently, the data collection process consisted of three phases shown in Fig. 2. The initial identification and screening process of study abstracts and conference proceedings resulted in 57 relevant studies. Upon completion of the third phase, we identified 32 eligible articles published between 2015 and 2020.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 Data Collection Process Adapted from the Prisma Guidelines</p> <p>The first phase involved the initial identification and screening process of study abstracts and conference proceedings, resulting in 57 relevant studies. After excluding the duplicates (<emph>n</emph> = 5), 52 articles were identified. The second phase ensured that the full-text manuscripts met the inclusion criteria. Because full texts of three articles were inaccessible through the databases, we requested access to them through an electronic service available for academicians (<emph>ILLiad</emph>). Based on the eligibility criteria, 24 studies were excluded from the list, leaving 28 articles to be included in the analysis. In the third phase, we reviewed publications from the reference lists of the confirmed articles and utilized the "Cited by" function in Google Scholar. This action yielded four more articles, resulting in 32 eligible articles published between 2015 and 2020. Appendix B provides the comprehensive list of the included studies.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-10">Data Analysis</hd> <p>All the studies were coded and analyzed to examine the potential impact of different moderator variables on the outcomes of using VRALL. Background information about the studies included variables that provided details about the study setting. We used content analysis method to conduct textual analysis which allowed to categorize, compare, and contrast the information (Fraenkel & Wallen, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref52">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>To record and organize the results of the analysis, we used a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Table 1 shows the coding categories selected for this review and their relation to our three research questions. We then read and analyzed the full texts of the articles included in the systematic reviews to identify the codes and categories.</p> <p>Table 1 Coding Categories of Research Questions</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Research Questions</p></th><th align="left"><p>Coding Categories</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>RQ1. What are the trends in VRALL research?</p></td><td align="left"><p>•Years of publication</p><p>•Country of study conduct</p><p>•Participants' number</p><p>•Participants' age</p><p>•Target language</p><p>•VR equipment</p><p>•VR content type (360° videos, computer-generated (CG), 360° and CG combined)</p><p>•VR content purpose (Off-the-shelf VRALL products, VR adapted for LL, custom-made VRALL product)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>RQ2. What is the impact of VRALL research on learning outcomes within specific language domains?</p></td><td align="left"><p>•Language domain (e.g., vocabulary, oral communication, writing)</p><p>•Learning outcomes (positive, negative, no change)</p><p>•Types of findings (qualitative, quantitative)</p><p>•Study duration</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>RQ3. What were learners' perceptions of VRALL?</p></td><td align="left"><p>•Participants' comments about motivation, engagement, anxiety, etc</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0159055426-11">Findings</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0159055426-12">VRALL Research Trends</hd> <p>To address RQ1, we examined the coding categories related to the year of publication, research methods used, country of study conduct, participants' number, age, and their target and native languages. Out of 32 studies published between 2015 and 2020, 16 were journal publications and 16 were conference proceedings. Most studies were published in 2020 (<emph>n</emph> = 12) and in 2019 (<emph>n</emph> = 11) with a rapid increase of publications in peer-reviewed journals which shows a growing interest in researching VRALL (Fig. 3).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 3 VRALL Studies Published Between 2015 and 2020</p> <p>Two articles were based on the same study, reporting different findings (Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref53">60</reflink>]; Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref54">61</reflink>]). To avoid overreporting, we analyzed the demographics data in these articles as a single study. Most studies were conducted in Asia (<emph>n</emph> = 12), followed by countries in North America (<emph>n</emph> = 8) and in Europe (<emph>n</emph> = 8). Only three studies took place in South America. English was the most frequent native language (<emph>n</emph> = <emph>8)</emph> and target language (<emph>n</emph> = 16) of the subjects. Figure 4 presents the distribution of the participants' native and target languages.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 4 Distribution of Participants' Native and Target Languages</p> <p>Researchers focused on a wide range of age groups between six and 56 years old. The most researched age group was 18–25 years old. The average sample size was 34, which may be considered as limited (Faber & Fonseca, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref55">12</reflink>]), thus the results generalizability should be treated with caution.</p> <p>High-end, PC-powered VR devices (e.g., Oculus Rift, HTC Vive) were used in nearly half of the studies (<emph>n</emph> = 15). Low-budget, smartphone-based devices (e.g., Google Cardboard, Samsung Gear) were used in nine (<emph>n</emph> = 9) studies. Standalone devices (e.g., Oculus Go, Oculus Quest) were only used in two studies (<emph>n</emph> = 2). Six studies (<emph>n</emph> = 6) did not specify their VR devices.</p> <p>Table 2 shows the distribution of the studies across different types of VR content. The most used was computer-generated 3D content (<emph>n</emph> = 21). Only three studies (<emph>n</emph> = 3) used 360° videos, and eight studies (<emph>n</emph> = 8) combined 360° videos and 3D elements such as pop-up text in Google Expeditions and sentence prompts to aid the conversation in ImmerseMe (Soto et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref56">52</reflink>]). In half of the studies (<emph>n</emph> = 16), researchers employed custom-developed VR content, mostly 3D models and Unity game development engine (Khatoony, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref57">27</reflink>]; Pack et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref58">40</reflink>]). In 10 studies, researchers employed existing VR content and used it for language learning, such as Google Expeditions and 360° videos on Youtube (Dolgunsöz et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref59">10</reflink>]; Gorham et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref60">15</reflink>]). Only six studies used off-the-shelf VR applications created to study languages, such as MondlyVR (Christoforou et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref61">8</reflink>]; Kaplan-Rakowski & Wojdynski, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref62">26</reflink>]), House of Languages (Alfadil, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref63">3</reflink>]), and ImmerseMe (Soto et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref64">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 2 Studies that Incorporated Different Types of VR Content</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>Off-the-shelf VRALL product</p></th><th align="left"><p>Existing VR product, adapted for LL</p></th><th align="left"><p>Custom-made VRALL product</p></th><th align="left"><p>Total:</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Computer-generated (CG) VR content</p></td><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>14</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>21</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>360° videos</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>3</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>360° and CG hybrid</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>8</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Total:</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>6</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>10</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>16</bold></p></td><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0159055426-13">The Impact of VRALL Research on Learning Outcomes within Specific Language Domains</hd> <p>In response to RQ2, we identified seven major language learning domains based on the language context described in the studies: vocabulary, oral communication, writing, pronunciation, listening, speaking, and reading. Figure 5 shows the distribution of studies according to their focus on each language domain.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 5 Distribution of Findings in each Language Domain</p> <p>Out of all the language learning domains identified, vocabulary was most studied, and reading was least studied. No studies focused on grammar development. Six studies addressed multiple domains (Acar & Cavas, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref65">1</reflink>]; Berns et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref66">5</reflink>]; Nobrega & Rozenfeld, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref67">38</reflink>]; Parmaxi et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref68">45</reflink>]; Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref69">60</reflink>]; Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref70">61</reflink>]). Therefore, the total number of studies discussed in this section exceeds the total number of studies included in the systematic review.</p> <p>Half of the studies (<emph>n</emph> = 16) were quantitative, 10 studies used mixed methods, and six studies were qualitative. Figure 6 shows the distribution of quantitative and qualitative findings based on their impact. Quantitative findings showed statistically significant positive, negative, or no impact of the VR intervention on language learning outcomes. Qualitative findings were based solely on participants' perceptions, reporting positive or negative impacts.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 6 Distribution of Findings on Language Learning Outcomes</p> <p>The goal of nine studies (Barret et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref71">4</reflink>]; Kaplan-Rakowski & Wojdynski, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref72">26</reflink>]; Ondarra et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref73">39</reflink>]; Pack et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref74">40</reflink>]; Papin & Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref75">42</reflink>]; Parmaxi et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref76">45</reflink>]; Repetto et. al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref77">50</reflink>]; Sun et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref78">53</reflink>]; Urueta & Ogi, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref79">57</reflink>]) was not to report specific learning outcomes, but to investigate other learning aspects, including students' engagement, motivation, and attitudes towards VRALL. We excluded those studies while reporting the findings on the impact of VRALL on students' learning outcomes.</p> <p>Figure 7 shows the distribution of findings according to the duration of the studies. Twenty-three studies which reported student learning outcomes were either repeated-exposure studies or one-time interventions. Repeated-exposure studies involved experiments with the duration between two weeks and one semester and ensured multiple opportunities for the participants to experience learning in VR. All repeated-exposure studies (<emph>n</emph> = 9) revealed positive effects of VR technologies on language learning, seven of which were statistically significant. Among one-time intervention studies (<emph>n</emph> = 14), six reported statistically significant negative impacts of VR on language learning outcomes, and two found no change in students' performance. Additionally, six studies revealed positive changes, but only three of them were statistically significant.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 7 Distribution of Findings in the Studies Based on Their Duration</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-14">Key Findings within Language Domains</hd> <p>By analyzing the articles, we identified major findings related to vocabulary, oral communication, speaking, listening, writing, pronunciation, and reading.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-15">Vocabulary</hd> <p>In most studies focusing on vocabulary learning, positive learning outcomes were compared to the learning outcomes of the control groups delivering learning content through books, lectures, and worksheets (Alfadil, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref80">3</reflink>]), word-word paired associations (Legault et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref81">29</reflink>]), and 2D videos (Tai et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref82">54</reflink>]). The average number of participants per study was 40.</p> <p>Four studies which reported significant positive impact of VRALL ensured participants' multiple exposures to the VR intervention with the study duration between 2 and 16 weeks. Three studies revealed participants' beliefs that their vocabulary improved due to the VR intervention, but without reporting specific learning outcomes (Berns et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref83">5</reflink>]; Garcia et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref84">14</reflink>]; Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref85">60</reflink>]; Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref86">61</reflink>]). Three studies described a statistically significant negative effect of VR on vocabulary learning when compared to the results of control groups (Ebert et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref87">11</reflink>]; Hartfill et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref88">19</reflink>]; Vázquez et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref89">58</reflink>]). Those studies were designed as one-time interventions with the VR exposure lasting between 5 and 45 min.</p> <p>Ebert et al. ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref90">11</reflink>]), Tai et al. ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref91">54</reflink>]), and Vazquez et al. ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref92">58</reflink>]) measured delayed retention. All three studies reported that VR intervention groups demonstrated a much smaller decline in delayed performance when compared to control groups whose scores dropped significantly compared to the immediate performance.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-16">Oral communication</hd> <p>Oral and aural communicative abilities are traditionally developed through conversing with a teacher or a native speaker in a target language (Harmer, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref93">18</reflink>]). In this process, both speaking and listening skills are dynamically engaged to express ideas, and this is the reason why communicative ability is studied separately from speaking and listening skills (Alam & Bashiruddin, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref94">2</reflink>]).</p> <p>Out of eight studies exploring the use of VR to develop communicative abilities, one (Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref95">62</reflink>]) identified a statistically significant positive effect. Low-achieving students practiced dialogic interactions in computer-generated VR environment for 4 weeks, leading to significant improvements in their communicative abilities. One study (Christoforou et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref96">8</reflink>]) reported a significant negative impact. The researchers conducted a one-time VR intervention using a small sample of nine participants in the experimental group and nine in the control group. Both groups scored lower on post-test than on pre-test.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-17">Speaking and listening</hd> <p>Five studies explored the development of individual speaking skills and listening skills in VR without engaging learners in conversational practice. Two studies explored the effectiveness of immersing students in a VR scenario to practice listening skills when compared to the effectiveness of an audio-only condition. In Pinto et al. (2017), the differences in the learners' outcomes were insignificant, but a small sample size (<emph>N</emph> = 12) and a short, 20-min intervention constituted a considerable limitation. Lee ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref97">28</reflink>]) found the VR condition to be more effective than an audio condition. The difference between 2D video and VR conditions was insignificant, suggesting that the visual support alone is sufficient to increase the effectiveness of listening skill development.</p> <p>Three studies explored the potential of 360° videos and images using Google Expeditions and Google Tour Creator to develop listening and speaking skills. In Nobrega and Rozenfeld ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref98">38</reflink>]), teachers agreed that creating virtual tours contributed to students' oral comprehension and production thanks to the playback feature to learn more about the virtual places and record their own audio segments to create their tours. Xie et al., ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref99">60</reflink>]) found that by conducting oral presentations in VR, learners' fluency improved slightly but insignificantly. Parmaxi et al. ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref100">45</reflink>]) examined how Google Expeditions can facilitate social exploration within the language learning context. While the study mentioned the potential of VR to foster listening and speaking skills, neither quantitative nor qualitative data were presented.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-18">Writing</hd> <p>In terms of developing writing skills, studies focused on using VR to learn the structure of a paragraph (Pack et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref101">40</reflink>]), post-VR intervention retention and writing performance (Acar & Cavas, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref102">1</reflink>]; Dolgunsöz et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref103">10</reflink>]), written preparation for a VR presentation (Nobrega & Rozenfeld, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref104">38</reflink>]), and calligraphy and memorization using body kinesthetics in VR (Gorham et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref105">15</reflink>]). The diverse nature of researchers' interpretations of writing skill resulted in very different approaches to VR interventions used in those studies, making it challenging to generalize their findings.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-19">Pronunciation</hd> <p>Three studies included the discussion on the potential of VR to improve language learners' pronunciation. Only one study focused specifically on learners' pronunciation improvement (Khatoony, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref106">27</reflink>]). That study reported a statistically significant positive effect of VR games on learners' pronunciation after ten 90-min sessions when compared to traditional methods of teaching pronunciation. It is also the only study in our review that recruited young children aged between 6 and 12.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-20">Reading</hd> <p>One study explored the impact of VR on English learners' reading skills (Acar & Cavas, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref107">1</reflink>]). Students used VR headsets and software for three weeks to read short passages about the planets in the immersive VR environment. The researchers reported significant gains of the VR group in reading compared to the students in the control group who were doing gap-filling exercises, smart board exercises, listening to the teacher, and answering questions.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-21">Learners' Perceptions of VRALL</hd> <p>The findings in 20 studies explicitly stated that students had generally positive experience learning languages in VR. Participants attributed their optimistic perceptions to high levels of excitement and engagement (Alfadil, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref108">3</reflink>]), feeling interested and motivated (Pack et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref109">40</reflink>]), and overall perceiving VR experience as more enjoyable and fun than traditional methods of learning (Kaplan-Rakowski & Wojdynski, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref110">26</reflink>]; Lee, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref111">28</reflink>]).</p> <p>Several studies also reported that VRALL can ease nervousness and reduce anxiety associated with speaking a foreign language in front of others, especially when working in small groups (Soto et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref112">52</reflink>]). However, some participants still reported being anxious of losing face in front of their classmates when asked to perform while the whole class was present (Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref113">62</reflink>]).</p> <p>Learners focusing on communication skills also enjoyed dynamic conversations and immersive experiences in VR which helped them feel prepared for encountering similar situations in the future (Lee, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref114">28</reflink>]). Being able to look the virtual avatars in the eye and imitate real conversations made the participants feel more engaged in learning and increased their sense of presence (Cheng et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref115">7</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-22">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0159055426-23">Characteristics of the VRALL Studies</hd> <p>Interest in VRALL is continuously growing, as evidenced by the increasing number of studies conducted since 2015, and especially so since 2018. The VRALL research peaked in 2020 indicating the record-high appeal to VR technology among language educators, which is largely due to the rapid VR technology development. Because VR technology is still relatively novel, publications in conference proceedings are typical and often based on pilot studies that are carving the new line of research. Unsurprisingly then, half of the studies in our review were published in conference proceedings and the other half were published in peer-reviewed journals. A surge of studies published in peer-reviewed journals in the recent years suggests VRALL to be an emerging field of research.</p> <p>High-end VR headsets were used more frequently than the low-budget ones. This finding is surprising because earlier speculations were that low-cost VR, such as Google Cardboard, would be more explored in language classrooms in the future (Parmaxi, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref116">44</reflink>]). One explanation may be that advanced VR equipment offers more interactive opportunities for language learners.</p> <p>The use of custom-made VR content was more prevalent than off-the-shelf VR products. This implies that existing commercial VRALL platforms are insufficient to accommodate language scholars' needs. There is a market for commercial VRALL platforms, and custom-developed software described in the studies reflect the needs of language learners and teachers regarding these platforms. Because the custom-made VR content was preferable, we believe that teachers need more control over the VR content and more user-friendly VR authoring tools.</p> <p>Computer-generated VR spaces were more prevalent than 360° immersive videos. The reason for this finding could be that developers can design computer-generated spaces to be interactive and modifiable because the VR environments can be re-programmed. Conversely, 360° video content is stored as footage rather than customizable 3D objects, making it more challenging to modify as it may require re-recording the videos. Re-recording may also require traveling to specific locations or hiring actors. While computer-generated VR spaces are currently preferable over 360° video content, we may expect this preference to be weaker in the future with further advancements of computer vision and image-based capturing and rendering (Chang & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref117">6</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-24">The Impact of VRALL Research Design on Learning Outcomes</hd> <p>Our systematic review unveiled three main findings regarding how existing VRALL studies research designs impacted learning outcomes. These are: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref118">1</reflink>) Multiple VR exposures are necessary for effective learning; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref119">2</reflink>) VR is beneficial for contextual vocabulary learning; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref120">3</reflink>) Perceptions of VRALL are positive, but its effectiveness is understudied.</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Multiple exposures to VR</emph> </bold> <bold>.</bold> We found a relationship between the frequency of participants' exposure to VRALL activities and their positive learning outcomes. Students who engaged in VRALL regularly for at least two weeks demonstrated high levels of achievement in developing their target language skills. Meanwhile, most students who had a one-time exposure to VR showed equal or worse performance than students from control groups. To explain this phenomenon, we need to understand that VR is a relatively novel technology that offers high levels of immersive experiences that were previously unattainable. For example, in a one-time intervention study by Ebert et al. ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref121">11</reflink>]), two groups of subjects studied vocabulary for 5 min. The experimental group used VR where a virtual apartment was annotated with target vocabulary and audio annotations. The control group, which used flashcards to study the same vocabulary, scored higher than the experimental group. The authors emphasized that the familiarity of the learners in control groups with the traditional methods of learning vocabulary gave them an advantage. Students in the experimental groups were new to VRALL, having a limited time to familiarize themselves with VR technology in addition to needing to focus on vocabulary learning. Meanwhile, the participants in control groups were accustomed to quickly memorizing information using traditional ways. A short exposure to VR often caused much excitement, leading to distraction from learning (Hartfill et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref122">19</reflink>]). The distraction could have also contributed to the VR groups scoring lower than the control groups.</p> <p>Our data revealed that most studies were conducted as one-time interventions, possibly due to limited access to subjects, research resources, and/or VR equipment. We found that learners benefit most when they are given opportunities to familiarize themselves with the VR technology during multiple sessions. For effective learning in VR, students need to have multiple opportunities to experience VR and gain confidence in using and learning with this technology. Regular exposure to VR can help learners in several ways. First, it may diminish the often-criticized "novelty effect" (Berns et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref123">5</reflink>]). Second, it can help overcome possible discomfort or cybersickness associated with immersive visualizations as users get accustomed to viewing the content (Kaplan-Rakowski, 2019; Kaplan-Rakowski et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref124">24</reflink>]). Third, it may lessen cognitive overload (Ebert et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref125">11</reflink>]). Consequently, when developing VRALL interventions, researchers and practitioners will be able to leverage VR affordances better if they ensure learners' repeated exposures to VR.</p> <p>Studies measuring students' delayed performance showed that even a one-time exposure to VR helps students recall some of the language learning content weeks after the experiment (Dolgunsöz et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref126">10</reflink>]; Ebert, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref127">11</reflink>]). Although in some cases traditional methods of learning may be more effective for immediate performance, learners tend to quickly forget this information, which is not the case for even a one-time exposure to VR learning conditions. This finding may indicate that the learning experience in VR is memorable, and it further underscores the importance of regular and consistent exposure to ensure that VRALL is effective.</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Impact on vocabulary learning.</emph> </bold> Vocabulary development was the most actively investigated topic between 2015 and 2020. VR offered contextual exposure to the target vocabulary. For instance, some VR tools allowed students to see and interact with the labeled 3D objects represented by the words they were attempting to learn (Alfadil, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref128">3</reflink>]; Garcia et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref129">14</reflink>]; Legault et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref130">29</reflink>]; Papin & Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref131">42</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref132">43</reflink>]). Other VR tools immersed learners in interactive dialogues with computer-generated avatars and prompted learners to use target vocabulary in conversations (Berns et al, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref133">5</reflink>]; Tai et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref134">54</reflink>]). Finally, some VR studies were designed to promote incidental vocabulary learning where participants were able to improve their vocabulary by preparing, presenting, and observing other students' presentations in VR (Nobrega & Rozenfeld, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref135">38</reflink>]; Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref136">60</reflink>]).</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Learners' perceptions of VRALL.</emph> </bold> The ability of VR to immerse users in virtual situated learning scenarios and simulate context-relevant conversations has drawn many researchers to investigate how VR can affect learners' listening, speaking, and communicative abilities (Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref137">23</reflink>]; Pinto et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref138">47</reflink>]; Sun et al, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref139">53</reflink>]). VR technology received positive feedback from its users who described it as "exciting," "motivating," "engaging," and "fun" (Christoforou et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref140">8</reflink>]). VR can also reduce foreign language anxiety (Gruber & Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref141">16</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref142">17</reflink>]; Thrasher, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref143">56</reflink>]), which is an important aspect of effective learning. The positive views on VRALL are well-aligned with previous findings in other fields (e.g., Makransky & Lilleholt, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref144">33</reflink>]). In fact, a frequent rationale of using VR for learning has been because of its capability to engage and motivate (Radianti et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref145">49</reflink>]).</p> <p>The integration of any technology in classroom, including VR technology, is highly dependent on teachers' and learners' positive attitude toward it (Ismail et al, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref146">21</reflink>]), making studies on attitudes and perceptions useful. Meanwhile, such studies are insufficient. As our review posits, VRALL research still needs more evidence of learning outcomes rather than investigations on perceptions. Perhaps this dearth of research is due to the challenge with measuring certain skills (e.g., communication), which are more subjective and harder to quantify compared to vocabulary recall. The improvement of communication skills is a gradual process that may be more difficult to track, and it may explain why most VRALL studies focus on listening, speaking, communication skills, students' perceptions, motivation, and engagement rather measure their learning outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-25">Research Gaps</hd> <p>Most studies were conducted as one-time interventions as opposed to studies that offered participants repeated exposures to VR. Short one-time exposures to VR often confused participants due to their unfamiliarity with VR technology and the novelty effect. These factors frequently disadvantaged experimental groups, compared to control groups. While many studies focused on learners' perceptions, few studies explored VR learning effectiveness, especially in the context of communicative abilities. Studies measuring learning outcomes often lacked rigorous methodology that would provide pedagogical base for using VR for learning. Moreover, research on using VR for writing, reading, and pronunciation development is scarce and inconclusive. No studies exist on VRALL and grammar development.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-26">Study Limitations</hd> <p>One limitation is that our review included only articles from journals and conference proceedings. Book chapters, master theses, and doctoral dissertations were excluded. Future studies can include other types of publications.</p> <p>Another limitation is that we were unable to collect all details of some studies. This is because some manuscripts lacked clarity of information, such as the exact study duration, the details on equipment used, or details on participants' characteristics. A review embracing all the necessary details would add more understanding regarding VRALL.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-27">Conclusions and Future Research</hd> <p>While VR has been increasingly explored as the potential platform for language learning, measuring learning outcomes in VRALL has been too scarce to allow for drawing robust conclusions about VRALL effectiveness. The few studies that analyzed VRALL effectiveness suffered from a limited methodology, resulting in few research-based pedagogical implications. Although VR remains a promising and ever-expanding platform, the current stage of VRALL research indicates a potential rather than evidence for or against VR usefulness. Therefore, the implications of VR technology for improving language learning outcomes need further investigation.</p> <p>Our findings suggest that short exposure to VR often leads to negative or insignificant learning outcomes while multiple interventions often lead to the improvement of language learning skills. Language practitioners need to ensure learners' access and regular exposure to VR tools to maximize learning outcomes. The effective use of VR has shown promising results of language learning skill improvement, particularly in relation to learning vocabulary. These findings enable language educators to adopt VR technologies as a supplemental tool to enhance vocabulary learning. Because most of existing VRALL studies were designed as one-time interventions, more repeated-exposure studies need to be conducted to confirm that prolonged exposure to VRALL tools can be more beneficial than traditional learning methods. We also identified the need to conduct more research that measures students' learning outcomes as opposed to their perceptions of VRALL, especially in the context of communicative abilities.</p> <p>Moreover, research on using VR for writing, reading, and pronunciation development is scarce and inconclusive. No studies exist on VRALL and grammar development. Neither is there any research focusing on one-on-one instruction, which constitutes another research gap. While most studies have been conducted on university students, studying participants of different age groups can provide a deeper understanding of the potential benefits of VRALL and their relations to a learner' age.</p> <p>Furthermore, we found that the existing number of commercially available VRALL apps are limited, and researchers increasingly turn to custom-made VR to explore the potential of this technology for language learning. This finding emphasizes the difficulties that language practitioners face when seeking ways to incorporate VR technologies in their language learning classrooms due to limited VR resources. A need for a greater variety of professionally developed VRALL tools is evident. Researcher-developed VR software examples described in the reviewed studies reflect the needs of language learners and teachers regarding the experiences that these VR tools should offer. Finally, it is important to consider physical characteristics of VR hardware when designing a VRALL study or a lesson. Researchers and practitioners need to account for the quality, weight, and the overall comfort level offered by the VR tools used in their projects and give priority to devices that offer high image resolution, fit users comfortably, and do not restrict their movements.</p> <p>The growing trend in the VRALL research allows us to predict an even larger volume of studies in the future, stressing the importance of the present systematic review to analyse the current state of research and identify further directions. Analogously to the evolution of already established media, such as TV or radio, VR technology is likely to be normalized as a common platform for not only entertainment but also education (Kaplan-Rakowski & Meseberg, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref147">25</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-28">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>We, the authors, wholeheartedly dedicate this paper to all the brave people of Ukraine who fearlessly fight for freedom and peace in their country and in the world.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-29">Funding</hd> <p>This work was not supported by any funding.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-30">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0159055426-31">Competing of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare they have no competing interests.</p> <hd id="AN0159055426-32">Appendix A</hd> <p>Recent Reviews on VRALL.</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Article</p></th><th align="left"><p>Scope</p></th><th align="left"><p>Studies reviewed</p></th><th align="left"><p>Time range</p></th><th align="left"><p>Summary of findings</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Huang et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr20">2021</xref></p></td><td align="left"><p>(a) the use of AR and VR in language education</p><p>(b) learning achievement</p><p>(c) motivation</p><p>(d) perceptions</p></td><td align="left"><p>88</p></td><td align="left"><p>2011—2020</p></td><td align="left"><p>Enhancing learning achievement and motivation are the most common findings from AR/VR research; AR/VR technologies seem distracting</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Palmeira et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr41">2020</xref></p></td><td align="left"><p>vocabulary</p></td><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>until 2019</p></td><td align="left"><p>VR seems distracting at first, consequently, having less effect on vocabulary learning compared to traditional methods</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parmaxi, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr44">2020</xref></p></td><td align="left"><p>(a) technologies and language settings</p><p>(b) pros and cons of VRALL</p><p>(c) future directions</p></td><td align="left"><p>26</p></td><td align="left"><p>2015–2018</p></td><td align="left"><p>LiVR and HiVR are useful for language learning but technological challenges and limited pedagogical foundations exist</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Peixoto et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr46">2021</xref></p></td><td align="left"><p>(a) VRALL characteristics</p><p>(b) technologies</p><p>(c) educational methods and language settings</p><p>(d) students' perceptions</p></td><td align="left"><p>30</p></td><td align="left"><p>N/S</p></td><td align="left"><p>The relation between language learning and LiVR/HiVR and motivation is positive, but VRALL research is scarce</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Qiu et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr48">2021</xref></p></td><td align="left"><p>(a) trends development</p><p>(b) Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis</p></td><td align="left"><p>150</p></td><td align="left"><p>2008–2019</p></td><td align="left"><p>VR/AR technologies become popular; typical strategies include task-based learning, situated learning, and game-based learning</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0159055426-33">Appendix B</hd> <p>Studies Included in the Review.</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Authors</p></th><th align="left"><p>Title</p></th><th align="left"><p>Journal</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Acar and Cavas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr1">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>The effect of virtual reality enhanced learning environment on the 7th-grade students' reading and writing skills in English</p></td><td align="left"><p>Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Sciences</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Alfadil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr3">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Effectiveness of virtual reality game in foreign language vocabulary acquisition</p></td><td align="left"><p>Computers & Education</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Barrett, Pack, Guo, & Wang (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Technology acceptance model and multi-user virtual reality learning environments for Chinese language education</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interactive Learning Environments</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Berns, Mota, Ruiz-Rube, & Dodero (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr5">2018</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Exploring the potential of a 360 video application for foreign language learning</p></td><td align="left"><p>Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cheng, Yang, & Andersen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr7">2017</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Teaching language and culture with a virtual reality game</p></td><td align="left"><p>Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Christoforou, Xerou, & Papadima-Sophocleous (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr8">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Integrating a virtual reality application to simulate situated learning experiences in a foreign language course</p></td><td align="left"><p>CALL and Complexity</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Dolgunsöz, Yildirim, & Yildirim (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr10">2018</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>The effect of virtual reality on EFL writing performance</p></td><td align="left"><p>Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Ebert, Gupta, & Makedon (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr11">2016</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Ogma: A Virtual Reality Language Acquisition System</p></td><td align="left"><p>Proceedings of the 9th ACM International Conference on Pervasive Technologies Related to Assistive Environments—PETRA'16</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Garcia, Laesker, Caprio, Kauer, Nguyen, & Andujar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr14">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>An immersive virtual reality experience for learning Spanish</p></td><td align="left"><p>International Conference on Human–Computer Interaction</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gorham, Jubaed, Sanyal, & Starr (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr15">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Assessing the efficacy of VR for foreign language learning using multimodal learning analytics</p></td><td align="left"><p>Professional Development in CALL: A Selection of Papers</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Hartfill, Gabel, Neves-Coelho, Vogel, Räthel, Tiede, & Steinicke (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr19">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Word saber: An effective and fun VR vocabulary learning game</p></td><td align="left"><p>Proceedings of the Conference on Mensch und Computer</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Kaplan-Rakowski and Wojdynski (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr26">2018</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Students' attitudes toward high-immersion virtual reality assisted language learning</p></td><td align="left"><p>Future-Proof CALL: Language Learning as Exploration and Encounters: Short papers from EUROCALL 2018</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Khatoony (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr27">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>An innovative teaching with serious games through virtual reality assisted language learning</p></td><td align="left"><p>2019 International Serious Games Symposium (ISGS) IEEE</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Lee (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr28">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Using Virtual Reality to Test Academic Listening Proficiency</p></td><td align="left"><p>Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Legault et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr29">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Immersive virtual reality as an effective tool for second language vocabulary learning</p></td><td align="left"><p>Languages</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Madini and Alshaikhi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr32">2017</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Virtual reality for teaching ESP vocabulary: A myth or a possibility</p></td><td align="left"><p>International Journal of English Language Education</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Monteiro and Ribeiro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr37">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Virtual reality in English vocabulary teaching: an exploratory study on affect in the use of technology</p></td><td align="left"><p>Trabalhos em Linguística Aplicada</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Nobrega & Rozenfeld (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr38">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Virtual Reality in the Teaching of FLE in a Brazilian Public School</p></td><td align="left"><p>Languages</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Ondarra et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr39">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>When international avatars meet–intercultural language learning in virtual reality exchange</p></td><td align="left"><p>CALL for widening participation: Short papers from EUROCALL 2020</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Pack et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr40">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>University EAP students' perceptions of using a prototype virtual reality learning environment to learn writing structure</p></td><td align="left"><p>International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Papin and Kaplan-Rakowski (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr42">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>An exploratory analysis of the impact of learners' first language on vocabulary recall using immersive technologies</p></td><td align="left"><p>CALL for widening participation: Short papers from EUROCALL 2020</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parmaxi, Stylianou, & Zaphiris (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr45">2017</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Leveraging virtual trips in Google expeditions to elevate students' social exploration</p></td><td align="left"><p>IFIP Conference on Human–Computer Interaction</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Pinto, Peixoto, Krassmann, Melo, Cabral, & Bessa (2019)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Virtual Reality in Education: Learning a Foreign Language</p></td><td align="left"><p>World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Repetto et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr50">2015</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Is motor simulation involved during foreign language learning? A virtual reality experiment</p></td><td align="left"><p>SAGE Open</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Soto, Ocampo, Colon, & Oropesa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr52">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Perceptions of ImmerseMe Virtual Reality Platform to Improve English Communicative Skills in Higher Education</p></td><td align="left"><p>International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Sun, Yao, Wang, & Ye (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr53">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>A Study on the Influence of Scene Reality of VR Environment on English Learners' Learning Engagement and Learning Effectiveness</p></td><td align="left"><p>2020 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Computer Science and Educational Informatization (CSEI)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Tai, Chen, & Todd (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr54">2020</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>The impact of a virtual reality app on adolescent EFL learners' vocabulary learning</p></td><td align="left"><p>Computer Assisted Language Learning</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Urueta and Ogi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr57">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>A TEFL virtual reality system for high-presence distance learning</p></td><td align="left"><p>International Conference on Network-Based Information Systems</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Vázquez, Xia, Aikawa, & Maes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr58">2018</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Words in motion: Kinesthetic language learning in virtual reality</p></td><td align="left"><p>2018 IEEE 18th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) IEEE</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Xie, Chen, & Ryder (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr60">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Effects of using mobile-based virtual reality on Chinese L2 students' oral proficiency</p></td><td align="left"><p>Computer Assisted Language Learning</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Xie et al., (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr61">2019</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Using Interactive Virtual Reality Tools in an Advanced Chinese Language Class: A Case Study</p></td><td align="left"><p>TechTrends</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Yang, Hsieh, & Wu (2020)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Facilitating Communicative Ability of EFL Learners via High-Immersion Virtual Reality</p></td><td align="left"><p>Journal of Educational Technology & Society</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0159055426-34">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0159055426-35"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Acar A, Cavas B. 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Journal of Educational Technology & Society. 2020; 23; 1: 30-49</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Tetyana Kucher Dhimolea; Regina Kaplan-Rakowski and Lin Lin</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref124"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref138"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref146"></nolink>
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  Data: A Systematic Review of Research on High-Immersion Virtual Reality for Language Learning
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Dhimolea%2C+Tetyana+Kucher%22">Dhimolea, Tetyana Kucher</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kaplan-Rakowski%2C+Regina%22">Kaplan-Rakowski, Regina</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lin%2C+Lin%22">Lin, Lin</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22TechTrends%3A+Linking+Research+and+Practice+to+Improve+Learning%22"><i>TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning</i></searchLink>. Sep 2022 66(5):810-824.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
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  Data: 15
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  Data: 2022
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Information Analyses
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Literature+Reviews%22">Literature Reviews</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Research%22">Educational Research</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Simulation%22">Computer Simulation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Second+Language+Learning%22">Second Language Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Electronic+Learning%22">Electronic Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vocabulary+Development%22">Vocabulary Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1007/s11528-022-00717-w
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  Data: 8756-3894<br />1559-7075
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Virtual reality (VR) can be beneficial for learning and for increasing learners' engagement and motivation. However, aggregations of studies on language learning in high-immersion VR are scarce. This paper offers a systematic review of existing research on VR-based language learning, encompassing 32 peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2020. The study yielded three main language-related findings: (1) multiple exposures to VR are necessary for effective learning; (2) VR is beneficial for contextual vocabulary learning; and (3) perceptions of language learning in VR are positive, but its effectiveness is inconclusive. We also describe VR technology trends, VR content used in language learning, and learners' perceptions of learning languages in VR. This systematic review is useful for language educators, researchers, and VR app developers.
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  Data: EJ1348085
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      – SubjectFull: Educational Research
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      – SubjectFull: Computer Simulation
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      – SubjectFull: Second Language Learning
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      – SubjectFull: Electronic Learning
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      – SubjectFull: Vocabulary Development
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      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
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      – TitleFull: A Systematic Review of Research on High-Immersion Virtual Reality for Language Learning
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            NameFull: Dhimolea, Tetyana Kucher
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            NameFull: Lin, Lin
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            – TitleFull: TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning
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