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Assessment for Effective Strategy Instruction in Writing

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Title: Assessment for Effective Strategy Instruction in Writing
Language: English
Authors: Michael, Elizabeth Loftin (ORCID 0000-0003-2454-3352), Ray, Amber, McKeown, Debra
Source: Preventing School Failure. 2022 66(4):327-332.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 6
Publication Date: 2022
Intended Audience: Teachers
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Elementary Education
Descriptors: Writing Strategies, Writing Instruction, Teaching Methods, Writing Evaluation, Student Needs, Students with Disabilities, Writing Improvement, Metacognition, Elementary School Students, Essays, Cues, Instructional Effectiveness
DOI: 10.1080/1045988X.2022.2076642
ISSN: 1045-988X
1940-4387
Abstract: Strategy instruction is an effective method for improving the writing skills of students who struggle when writing. It is critical when implementing strategy instruction that assessment of the strategy takes place in addition to assessment of writing. Practitioners should consider strategy assessment to ensure student proper use of strategy. This manuscript details variety in writing assessment and strategy instruction assessment that can be implemented to determine specific student needs for writing instruction. Consideration for practitioners is included.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1375638
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0160890483;psf01oct.22;2022Dec22.06:08;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0160890483-1">Assessment for effective strategy instruction in writing </title> <p>Strategy instruction is an effective method for improving the writing skills of students who struggle when writing. It is critical when implementing strategy instruction that assessment of the strategy takes place in addition to assessment of writing. Practitioners should consider strategy assessment to ensure student proper use of strategy. This manuscript details variety in writing assessment and strategy instruction assessment that can be implemented to determine specific student needs for writing instruction. Consideration for practitioners is included.</p> <p>Keywords: Assessment; self-regulation; strategy instruction; students with disabilities; writing</p> <p>Writing is a skill essential to success in school and life (Gilbert & Graham, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref1">3</reflink>]). Writing and the teaching of writing play an integral role in the United States school reform movement due to the development of the Common Core Standards (CCSS; National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers; NGA & CCSSO, 2010). Writing is a key part of how we assess student learning and is a means for students to present their own understanding of material learned. Writing requires students to navigate the rules and mechanics, while maintaining focus on factors like organization, form and features, purposes and goals, and audience awareness and perspective (Harris & Graham, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref2">12</reflink>]). Students also need to possess strategies for planning, composing, and revising different genres (e.g., persuasive, narrative, informative). To add to the complexity of skills required when writing, there is variance in what is needed when working within the different genres of writing.</p> <p>Students who experiences difficulties in writing lack critical knowledge of the writing process, have difficulty generating ideas, and generally produce writing that is less polished, expansive, coherent, and effective (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref3">6</reflink>]). When compared with the text of peers, struggling writers' compositions are shorter, incomplete, poorly organized, and contain more mechanical and grammatical errors (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref4">5</reflink>]). Additionally, students with writing difficulties spend little time in critical writing processes and focus more on lower level skills such as transcription, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation (Graham, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref5">8</reflink>]). Students with learning disabilities who lack the writing skills necessary to express ideas and demonstrate knowledge can experience negative impacts on their ability to maximize learning opportunities (Mason et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref6">13</reflink>]). This can have lasting effects on students' educational experiences and employment (Graham & Perin, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref7">10</reflink>]). Students who experience writing difficulties, including students with and at risk for disabilities, can benefit from an integrated instructional approach for writing that takes into account their complex needs.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-2">Strategy instruction for improving writing</hd> <p>Explicit, interactive instruction in strategies for planning, composing, and revising is an effective method to improve the writing performance of students who struggle with writing (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref8">6</reflink>]). Strategic writing instruction teaches writers to think carefully about their writing, to set goals for writing, and to devise plans for achieving their goals (Harris et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref9">11</reflink>]). Multiple studies (<emph>N</emph> = 20) addressing strategy instruction and explicit instruction across a variety of skills have shown positive effects on both typically developing and struggling writers in elementary grades (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref10">4</reflink>]). Strategy instruction can also enhance students' knowledge about good writing and increase their self-efficacy and attitudes toward writing (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref11">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Additionally, strategy instruction has been used to improve students' ability to write within the different genres. When taught genre specific strategies, students with disabilities writing improves. For example, studies involving students with disabilities show that persuasive writing ability can be improved by teaching persuasive writing strategies (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref12">6</reflink>]). When good strategy instruction is implemented, students construct knowledge through their interactions with adults and peers as strategies are modeled and practiced, while independent application of the strategies is supported.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-3">Types of strategy instruction</hd> <p>Strategy instruction serves to answer questions and meet challenges that can occur during the writing process. Strategies can be classified into three general categories (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref13">1</reflink>) self-regulatory strategies, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref14">2</reflink>) cognitive learning strategies, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref15">3</reflink>) writing strategies (Dean, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref16">2</reflink>]). An integrated use of these strategies is needed in order for students to develop as writers (Dean, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref17">2</reflink>]). When teaching writing, it is best to make use of all the practices that are beneficial to the writing process (Dean, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref18">2</reflink>]). To begin, there are self-regulatory strategies. The complex nature of the writing process requires extensive self-regulation and attention control and skilled writers will engage in active self-direction of the processes and strategies required (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref19">6</reflink>]). Examples of self-regulatory strategies include self-instruction, goal setting, self-evaluation, and self-monitoring.</p> <p>Next, there are cognitive learning strategies which support students broader learning skills and writing (Dean, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref20">2</reflink>]). These are sometimes considered invisible strategies because students are often unaware they exist. These strategies should be individualized to meet students' learning needs (Pressley et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref21">14</reflink>]). Part of instructing students is helping them recognize strategies they are using that aid in the writing process, such as note-taking and annotating. These strategies are part of the writing process; yet, students may be unaware that using those strategies actually aid in the writing process. Writing strategies are the third category which focus on helping support students in completing writing tasks (Dean, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref22">2</reflink>]) such as outlining, drafting, and revising. For example, the writing strategy POW is often taught to students beginning to learn the writing process. POW is a mnemonic that stands for Pull apart the prompt, Organize my notes, and Write and say more. Teaching writing strategies provides students opportunity to participate in goal driven, purposeful writing that can help students become more effective in employing strategies as they write.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-4">Self-regulated strategy development</hd> <p>The self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) instructional approach incorporates all three types of strategies (i.e., self-regulation, cognitive, and writing strategies). Furthermore, SRSD includes over 70% of practices for increasing writing achievement as recommended by the What Works Clearinghouse and improves students' active academic engagement (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref23">4</reflink>]). SRSD has been examined in over 100 studies with students in first grade through adulthood and has been effective in improving the writing abilities of struggling writers and students with disabilities (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref24">6</reflink>]). An overview of the six stages of SRSD instruction is provided here; further detail can be found in Harris et al. ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref25">11</reflink>]) and https://figshare.com/articles/pow_tree_twa_for_Writing_Persuasively_from_Source_Text_Lesson_Plans_Materials_and_Tips/5217226/2.</p> <p> <emph>Developing and Activating Background Knowledge</emph> is the first stage where the teacher determines what students know about the writing task and then work to expand students' knowledge. Students also learn writing and genre specific vocabulary that are relevant to the writing task. <emph>Discuss It</emph> is the second stage of instruction. This is when the teacher and students discuss the self-regulation, cognitive, and writing strategies that they will be using to support their writing. The teacher also discusses the importance of putting effort into learning the strategies.</p> <p>The third stage is <emph>Model It</emph>. The teacher models using all the strategies while thinking aloud to help students understand how the strategies all work together to help them complete a writing task. During this instructional stage, teachers often introduce graphic organizers that correspond with the writing strategies and model self-regulation procedures such as task-analysis and checking your work. The teacher models using self-instruction to work through the writing process. For instance, a teacher might model thinking of good ideas to write about by saying, "I can take my time and think about what I know about the topic." <emph>Memorize It</emph> is the fourth stage where students work to memorize the meaning and importance of each step of the writing strategy.</p> <p>The fifth stage is <emph>Support It</emph> where the teacher and students collaboratively work through the writing process using all the strategies to support their learning. During this stage, teachers slowly begin to fade guidance and support and transfer more responsibility to students. Finally, the sixth stage is <emph>Independent Performance.</emph> Students independently complete writing tasks using self-regulation, cognitive, and writing strategies.</p> <p>Overall, the SRSD instructional model incorporates self-regulation, cognitive, and writing strategies through the six instructional stages. These stages are discourse rich, scaffolded, and recursive to meet the learning needs of all students. Students develop the knowledge needed to use the strategies and increase their self-efficacy and motivation for writing.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-5">Assessing student's use of strategy</hd> <p>Assessment is a critical part of teaching students to use specific learning strategies. Before assessing the skills intended to be taught using strategy instruction, it is important for educators to assess students' use of the strategy to determine if there is a deficit due to lack of skills or improper use of the strategy. Many writing strategies provide students with an approach to organizing their notes. Students' advanced planning can be used to assess their use of a writing strategy.</p> <p>Complexity of advanced planning can be scored using a 0 to 5-point scale (Ray & Graham, in press). Students receive a score of 0 if they do not develop a plan prior to writing and a score of 1 if they write their essay on a planning sheet and then copy it onto the essay paper. They earn a score of 2 if they write an essay or words related to their essay on a planning sheet and make changes between their plan and essay and a score of 3 if words are listed related to developing a plan (i.e., TIDE, TREE, WWW What = 2 How = 2). Students earn a score of 4 if a strategy is used but there are no changes between plan and essay and a score of 5 if a strategy was used and there is a change between plan and essay. See Figure 1 for an example of a student who utilized the TIDE strategy, earning a score of 5, to plan their informative essay.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 1. Planning page for informative essay by third grade student.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-6">Assessing writing</hd> <p>Assessing writing performance helps teachers identify students who need more intensive writing support. Writing can be assessed in various ways, which helps teachers identify specific writing skills to target during instruction. The overall quality of writing and genre elements included are ways to look at writing more broadly. More discrete writing skills can be assessed by scoring total words written, number of words spelled correctly, the number of transition words, the incorporation of information from source text, and more.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-7">Writing quality</hd> <p>Holistic quality is a general impression of the overall quality of students' writing. There are several factors evaluators should take into consideration when scoring for holistic quality including ideation, organization, word choice, grammar, and sentence structure (Harris et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref26">11</reflink>]). All factors are taken into account, but none receive more importance than another. Quality is often scored using a Likert-type scale. For example, essays can be scored on a 10-point scale, with ten representing the highest quality.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-8">Genre elements</hd> <p>When students are composing genre specific essays, their writing can be scored for the inclusion of genre elements. Informative, persuasive, and narrative writing all have different essential components. Students who have been taught using strategy instruction, often have learned a mnemonic device for remembering all of the genre elements they need to include. For example, one genre strategy for informative writing is represented by the mnemonic TIDE which stands for Topic, Important Evidence, Details, and Ending. This aligns with expectations for informative writing at the upper elementary level which requires students to carefully examine a topic and convey ideas and information about that topic (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). Students are expected to clearly introduce the topic, develop the topic with evidence and details, and provide a conclusion (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). For introducing the topic and conclusion, a score of 1 point can be awarded if the element is present and a score of 0 if it is absent. For evidence and details, 1 point can be awarded for each separate and unique piece of evidence and detail to elaborate and support the evidence. See Figure 2 for a scored informative essay.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 2. Informative essay written by a fifth grade student.</p> <p>For persuasive writing, the organizational strategy TREE stands for Topic, Reasons, Explanations, Ending. This strategy supports students by helping them remember all of the genre elements that need to be in a persuasive essay. The CCSS expect students to clearly state their opinion on a topic, provide reasons, support reasons with facts and details, and have a conclusion (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). For scoring persuasive writing, a score of 1 point can be awarded for stating an opinion on the topic and the conclusion if the element is present and a score of 0 if it is absent. For reasons and explanations, 1 point can be awarded for each separate and unique reasons and explanation. See Figure 3 for a scored persuasive essay.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Persuasive essay written by a third grade student.</p> <p>Narrative is the third genre where writing is used to convey real or imagined sequences of events. The CCSS look for writers to begin a story by establishing the setting and characters (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). The story should then include a sequence of events and have the characters responding to situations. The story should end by wrapping up the events. A strategy that can be used to teach students the essential elements in narrative writing is WWW, What = 2, How = 2. This mnemonic stands for Who, When, Where, What does the main character do or want to do?, What happens then?, How does the main character feel?, and How does the story end?. To score narrative writing, 1 point can be awarded for each genre element. An additional point can be awarded for each unique event in the sequence and each additional character response or feeling to situations. See Figure 4 for a scored narrative essay.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 4. Narrative essay written by a third grade student.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-9">Additional assessments</hd> <p>There are numerous ways to score student writing that look at discrete skills including total words written, number of words spelled correctly, the number of transition words, the incorporation of information from source text, and more. The total number of words written can be scored using a word processing word count feature when students use a computer to write. When scoring handwritten essays, any letter or group of letters separated by a spaced can be counted as a word, even if the word is misspelled. Student writing can also be scored for accurate spelling. This can be done by reading and circling all the misspelled words within a piece of writing. Then subtracting the number of misspelled words from the total words written to get a count of the words spelled correctly.</p> <p>Assessing students use of transition words is another way to evaluate writing. The CCSS call for the use of transitional words or phrases when writing in any genre (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). Transition words can be identified by examining the first words or phrases at the beginning of each sentence (Ray & Graham, in press) and can be scored by totaling the number of transition words or phrases used in an essay and for the appropriate use of transition words.</p> <p>Another expectation of the CCSS is for students to read informational text and then incorporate ideas from that source text into their own writing (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). These writing tasks are required of students in third grade and above, as seen on the Smarter Balanced Assessment. Student writing can be examined for the incorporation of information from source text. This is done by counting the number of unique idea units from source text that students have included in their writing. Idea units from source text can be paraphrased or direct quotes.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-10">Challenges</hd> <p>There are many challenges educators face when scoring student writing, most notably the amount of time it takes to evaluate student writing and scoring with reliability. Due to writing taking time and careful effort to score, it is important for teachers to select specific aspects of writing they want to evaluate. When assigning a writing task, teachers should be clear about how they plan to evaluate students' writing, such as overall quality, genre elements, length, spelling, transition words, or incorporation of source text. Teachers should then focus their feedback on those specific areas of evaluation. This is advantageous for teachers because it helps focus their attention to explicit aspects of writing and in turn saves them time. Students additionally benefit from concentrated feedback. When provided with a specific aspect of their writing to improve and receive feedback on, students are better able to learn and improve their writing skills.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-11">Considerations for practitioners</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0160890483-12">Progress monitoring</hd> <p>Assessing students' writing helps practitioners see students' current writing abilities and the aspects of writing that need improvement. Frequent progress monitoring of students who are receiving specialized instruction in writing allows practitioners to see if the current intervention is helping students enhance their writing. A way to measure writing progress is using a curriculum based measurement in writing (CBM-W). The CBM-W is a timed (3 − 5 min) response to a prompt and typically scored for total words written, words spelled correctly, and correct word sequences (CWS). The CWS measure was developed by Videen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref27">16</reflink>]) as a general indicator of students' writing performance that takes into account spelling and grammar.</p> <p>There are many resources available for practitioners who wish to incorporate CBM-W as a part of progress monitoring for writing. One website that provides free CBM-W resources is Intervention Central: https://<ulink href="http://www.interventioncentral.org/teacher-resources/curriculum-based-measurement-probes-writing">www.interventioncentral.org/teacher-resources/curriculum-based-measurement-probes-writing</ulink>. Intervention Central's written expression prompts are story starters, such as "The zookeeper noticed that the cage was open and..." (Wright, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref28">17</reflink>]). Students are read the prompt aloud and then given 1 min to think about the story they will write based on the prompt. After the 1 min of thinking time, students are given 3 min to write their story. Students writing is then scored. Intervention Central has a manual for teachers with directions on how to administer and score CBM-W (Wright, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref29">17</reflink>]). When given on a regular basis (e.g., every two weeks), the CBM-W can help teachers monitor students' writing progress.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-13">Writing prompts</hd> <p>Practitioners must also give careful consideration to the development of writing prompts as they set the stage for the writing task. When developing classroom-based writing assessments, teachers need to provide clear expectations about what they are asking of students. Calfee and Greitz Miller ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref30">1</reflink>]) suggest five key aspects to consider when writing a prompt. To begin with, there needs to be a focus statement that identifies the key topic. The prompt should also clearly state the purpose for writing and use genre clue words such as persuade, convince, illustrate, story, describe, tell, or explain.</p> <p>Next, an audience should be identified. If an audience is not listed within a prompt, the assumption is that the student is writing for the teacher. Writing for different audiences is another way to expand students' writing skills. For example, if a student is writing about why there should not be school uniforms, their reasons and explanations to support their opinion may be different if they are writing to convince their principal versus a peer. Additionally, prompts need to specify the expected outcome product. This is whether students should write a paragraph, essay, blog post, or another form. Finally, students should be provided with a description of the criteria that will be used to evaluate their work. This can be in the form of an analytic trait rubric or holistic scoring.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-14">Additional considerations</hd> <p>Having students self-evaluate and graph their own writing progress is an effective way to have students self-monitor their writing performance (Ray & Graham, in press). Providing students with specific guidelines on how to evaluate their own work helps them develop as writers. Graphing their writing evaluations can help students see their improvements and increase motivation. One way teachers can have students evaluate their own work is by having students identify the number of genre elements in their writing. Figure 5 shows a surfboard graph where a student graphed the number of genre elements within each essay they wrote. The student was also working on incorporating transition words into their writing and illustrated a fish for each transition word they used in an essay.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 5. Student self-evaluation and graphing of persuasive essay writing.</p> <hd id="AN0160890483-15">Conclusion</hd> <p>To summarize, strategy instruction is an effective way to teach students self-regulation, cognitive, and writing strategies and enhance their writing abilities. Assessing students' strategy use and writing helps educators identify students' current levels of performance and make instructional decisions. Additionally, providing students with targeted feedback on their writing helps students grow as writers. While this is no small task, when teachers incorporate these effective practices, they are able to able to help all students develop the essential skill of writing which students need to be successful in school and beyond.</p> <ref id="AN0160890483-16"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref13" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Calfee, R. C., & Greitz Miller, R. (2013). Best practices in writing assessment for instruction. In S. Graham, C. A. MacArthur, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Best practices in writing instruction. (pp. 351 – 377). Gilford Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref14" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Dean, D. (2010). What works in writing instruction: research and practices. National Council of Teachers of English.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref1" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Gilbert, J., & Graham, S. (2010). Teaching writing to elementary students in grades 4–6: A national survey. The Elementary School Journal, 110 (4), 494 – 518. https://doi.org/10.1086/651193</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref10" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Graham, S., Bollinger, A., Booth Olson, C., D'Aoust, C., MacArthur, C., McCutchen, D., & Olinghouse, N. (2012). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers: A practice guide (NCEE 2012- 4058). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. <ulink href="http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications%5freviews.aspx#pubsearch">http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications%5freviews.aspx#pubsearch</ulink>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref4" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Graham, S., Collins, A. A., & Rigby-Wills, H. (2017). Writing characteristics of students with learning disabilities and typically achieving peers: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 83 (2), 199 – 218. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402916664070</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref3" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & McKeown, D. (2013). The writing of students with LD and a meta-analysis of SRSD writing intervention studies: Redux. In L. Swanson, K.R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilitie. (2nd ed., pp. 405 – 438). Guilford Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref11" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Trioa, G. (1998). Writing and self-regulation: Cases from the self-regulated strategy development model. In D. Schunk & B. Zimmerman (Eds.) Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practices (pp. 20 – 41). Guilford Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref5" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Graham, S., MacArthur, C. A., Graham, S., & Fitzgerald, J. (2006). Strategy instruction and the teaching of writing: A metaanalysis. In Handbook of writing research (pp. 187 – 207). Guilford Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., & Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104 (4), 879 – 896. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029185</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high school. Alliance for Excellence in Education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Harris, K. R., Ray, A. B., Graham, S., & Houston, J. D. (2019). Answering the challenge: SRSD instruction for close reading of text to write to persuade with 4 th and 5 th grade students experiencing writing difficulties. Reading and Writing, 32 (6), 1459 – 1482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9910-1</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work: Strategies for composition and self-regulation. Brookline Books.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mason, L., Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (2011). Self-regulated strategy development for students with writing difficulties. Theory into Practice, 50 (1), 20 – 27. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2011.534922</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pressley, M., Harris, K. R., & Marks, M. B. (1992). But good strategy instructors are constructivists. Educational Psychology Review, 4 (1), 3 – 31. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01322393</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ray, A. B., & Graham, S. (2021). A College Entrance Essay Exam Intervention for Students With High-Incidence Disabilities and Struggling Writers.. Learning Disability Quarterly, 44(4), 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948720917761</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Videen, J., Marston, D., & Deno, S. L. (1982). Correct word sequences: A valid indicator of proficiency in written expression (Vol. IRLD-RR-84). University of Minnesota, Institute for Research on Learning Disabilities.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wright, J. (2020). Written Expression Probe Generator. Intervention Central. https://<ulink href="http://www.interventioncentral.org/teacher-resources/curriculum-based-measurement-probes-writing">www.interventioncentral.org/teacher-resources/curriculum-based-measurement-probes-writing</ulink></bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Elizabeth Loftin Michael; Amber Ray and Debra McKeown</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref28"></nolink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Michael%2C+Elizabeth+Loftin%22">Michael, Elizabeth Loftin</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2454-3352">0000-0003-2454-3352</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ray%2C+Amber%22">Ray, Amber</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22McKeown%2C+Debra%22">McKeown, Debra</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Preventing+School+Failure%22"><i>Preventing School Failure</i></searchLink>. 2022 66(4):327-332.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 6
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: Audience
  Label: Intended Audience
  Group: Audnce
  Data: Teachers
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Descriptive
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Writing+Strategies%22">Writing Strategies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Writing+Instruction%22">Writing Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Writing+Evaluation%22">Writing Evaluation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Needs%22">Student Needs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Writing+Improvement%22">Writing Improvement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Metacognition%22">Metacognition</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Students%22">Elementary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Essays%22">Essays</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cues%22">Cues</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Instructional+Effectiveness%22">Instructional Effectiveness</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/1045988X.2022.2076642
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1045-988X<br />1940-4387
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Strategy instruction is an effective method for improving the writing skills of students who struggle when writing. It is critical when implementing strategy instruction that assessment of the strategy takes place in addition to assessment of writing. Practitioners should consider strategy assessment to ensure student proper use of strategy. This manuscript details variety in writing assessment and strategy instruction assessment that can be implemented to determine specific student needs for writing instruction. Consideration for practitioners is included.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1375638
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1375638
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/1045988X.2022.2076642
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 6
        StartPage: 327
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Writing Strategies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Writing Instruction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Writing Evaluation
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      – SubjectFull: Student Needs
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      – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Writing Improvement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Metacognition
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Essays
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cues
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Instructional Effectiveness
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Assessment for Effective Strategy Instruction in Writing
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
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      – PersonEntity:
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            NameFull: Michael, Elizabeth Loftin
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            NameFull: Ray, Amber
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            NameFull: McKeown, Debra
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2022
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            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1045-988X
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              Value: 66
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              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Preventing School Failure
              Type: main
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