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Parents and More: The Multidimensional Factors Involved in Children's Cognitive Achievements

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Title: Parents and More: The Multidimensional Factors Involved in Children's Cognitive Achievements
Language: English
Authors: Edna Orr (ORCID 0000-0002-1652-2861), Rinat Caspi
Source: Child Care in Practice. 2025 31(1):85-102.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Cognitive Development, Children, Parents, Work Life Expectancy, Outcomes of Education, Correlation, Individual Characteristics, Age, Employment, Parent Child Relationship, Home Study, Instructional Materials, Mothers, Fathers, Gender Differences, Educational Background, Age Differences, Preschool Children, Foreign Countries
Geographic Terms: Israel
DOI: 10.1080/13575279.2022.2084366
ISSN: 1357-5279
1476-489X
Abstract: The association between parents' work-family conflicts and children's academic outcomes is an understudied topic. The present research investigates the role of quadratic measures--parental working hours' scale, parental age, parental interaction quality, and learning materials at home--in children's cognitive outcomes. It employs a community sample of 91 children aged 4-5 years, their parents and their kindergarten teachers. The results indicate that parents' interaction quality and learning materials at home are the main factors affecting children's academic outcomes. Notably, mothers provide higher interaction quality than fathers. Parental education and age play roles in children's academic outcomes, but probably in a less direct manner and likely indirectly through learning materials. "Working hours" is a factor associated with the interaction quality affecting mothers to a higher degree. The results are discussed in terms of resource allocation modality; they emphasize the importance of parental interaction quality in shaping children's cognitive environment and development.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1464083
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0183372066;j2301jan.25;2025Mar04.04:11;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183372066-1">Parents and More: The Multidimensional Factors Involved in Children's Cognitive Achievements </title> <p>The association between parents' work–family conflicts and children's academic outcomes is an understudied topic. The present research investigates the role of quadratic measures—parental working hours' scale, parental age, parental interaction quality, and learning materials at home—in children's cognitive outcomes. It employs a community sample of 91 children aged 4–5 years, their parents and their kindergarten teachers. The results indicate that parents' interaction quality and learning materials at home are the main factors affecting children's academic outcomes. Notably, mothers provide higher interaction quality than fathers. Parental education and age play roles in children's academic outcomes, but probably in a less direct manner and likely indirectly through learning materials. "Working hours" is a factor associated with the interaction quality affecting mothers to a higher degree. The results are discussed in terms of resource allocation modality; they emphasize the importance of parental interaction quality in shaping children's cognitive environment and development.</p> <p>Keywords: Cognitive growth; parental interaction quality; home environment; learning materials; parental career</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Children flourish when they have a foundation that prompts their physical, social, emotional, and cognitive wellbeing. Such a foundation is described in a gold parenting portfolio that provides resources for child development in all domains (Bradley & Corwyn, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref1">8</reflink>]; Junge et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref2">33</reflink>]). Parental caring, exemplified by the provision of suitable physical needs (e.g. hygiene, running water, good air quality, a smoke-free environment), establishes a child's physical well-being. Social well-being is cultivated by instilling in the child values and conventions that are culturally accepted in the community in which the child resides (Pomerantz & Thompson, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref3">51</reflink>]). Parental social modeling and coaching are tools that parents have at their disposal for achieving better behavioral regulation and prosocial conduct among their children (Dulay et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref4">24</reflink>]); a child's emotional well-being is framed by positive, caring, and responsive parenting (Slobodskaya et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref5">57</reflink>]). Parental investment in emotional nurturing plays a role in children's social abilities, academic achievements, language and cognitive development, appropriate behavior, and positive health outcomes (Bai et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref6">4</reflink>]; Masten, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref7">41</reflink>]; Sroufe, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref8">58</reflink>]).</p> <p>Children's cognitive functioning and achievement rely also on parental resources that provide learning materials; these play an active part in the learning process (Moon & Hofferth, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref9">46</reflink>]; Taylor et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref10">60</reflink>]). The home environment is the initial platform for parents to provide numerous indoor and outdoor activities that can create opportunities for learning. For instance, play involving spatial toys (e.g. puzzles, blocks, Lego) has a significant influence on the spatial skills that are important for future success in science, mathematics, and engineering (Verdine et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref11">63</reflink>]). Moreover, access to a musical instrument at home has been found to contribute to a child's speech perception (MacCutcheon et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref12">39</reflink>]) and academic achievements (Young et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref13">66</reflink>]). An elevation in six-year-old children's intelligence quotients (IQs) was found after 36 weeks of group music lessons (Schellenberg, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref14">55</reflink>]), while a significant improvement in verbal intelligence occurred after 20 days of computerized music training among four- and six-year-old children (Moreno et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref15">47</reflink>]). Engaging with printed materials establishes early literacy and an understanding of spoken and written language (oral skills, phonetic awareness, awareness of printed media, and an impetus to write). Linguistic skills that are acquired before a child has reached the stage of formal learning have significant positive implications for vocabulary acquisition (Napoli & Purpura, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref16">49</reflink>]) and are a predictor for academic achievements in school and throughout adolescence (Currie & Almond, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref17">19</reflink>]; Morgan et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref18">48</reflink>]). Outdoor leisure pursuits, such as sports and playing in nature, contribute to attention and motor skills (Atli & Baran, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref19">2</reflink>]). Visiting outdoor cultural sites such as museums helps evoke deep interest and engagement among children, factors that are valuable for learning (Degotardi et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref20">21</reflink>]; Korom et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref21">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>The effect of engaging with learning materials at home on a child's cognitive capabilities is augmented if parents take an active part in the learning process. The conceptual approach to social agents, exemplified by Feuerstein et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref22">26</reflink>]) and Vygotsky ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref23">64</reflink>]), noted that a parent is an essential modifying agent in directing and shaping a child's cognitive adaptability. Parental responsiveness to children's curiosity, fostering their interests, and maintaining their attention are actions that encourage children's willingness to learn, to broaden their experience, and expand the information that they may gain during encounters with learning materials. Indeed, the literature provides considerable evidence that cognitively responsive parents contribute to later cognitive outcomes such as reading comprehension skills (Taylor et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref24">60</reflink>]), higher problem-solving abilities (Cha, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref25">13</reflink>]) and language functioning (Ramírez, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref26">54</reflink>]). Responsiveness to children's interests is one trajectory that parents may take. According to Harris and Almutairi ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref27">29</reflink>]), parents may instigate children's learning by providing strategies that can be altered and reorganized in relation to the ongoing parent–child interaction. For instance, to enhance recall skills, mothers use several strategies to elicit information on previous events they have experienced. The mother may ask the child to elaborate on past events by asking questions that represent direct requests for information. During reading sessions, mothers can teach by directing children's behaviors, creating links between the storybook and real-life experiences. Such a repertoire of discourse strategies, which are occasionally altered to fit a child's unfolding skills, facilitate and shape immediate and long-term cognitive and intellectual competence in young children (Harris & Almutairi, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref28">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>Parents invest significant resources in terms of time, money, and mental effort (Shaffer & Obradović, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref29">56</reflink>]) to pave a positive developmental path for their children. Understanding their children's signals, attending to their children's psychological and cognitive needs (Célia et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref30">12</reflink>]), pinpointing the zone of proximal cognitive development (Vygotsky, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref31">64</reflink>]), and adapting learning materials to their children's level of development (Cline & Edwards, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref32">16</reflink>]) are some of the ways parents invest resources to meet their children's needs. However, at present, the parental ability to invest significant resources and efforts into children's development represents a challenge. Studies exploring the family-work interface in the twenty-first century have reported that the labor market has changed dramatically in the last 10 years (Cinamon et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref33">15</reflink>]; Matias et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref34">42</reflink>]). Women have become a significant part of the labor force, meaning that all the adults in households are employed (Matias et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref35">42</reflink>]). This leads to rising expectations that fathers will take an active part in daily childcare, regardless of the fact that employers increasingly expect that employees will work more hours (Kelly et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref36">34</reflink>]; Matias et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref37">42</reflink>]). Figures from Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref38">30</reflink>]) show that 84% of men and 76% of women aged 25–64 are working. Higher percentages occur among parents of young children (35–44 years old); in this group, 90% of men and 81% of women are working. The average working hours per week are 40.5 and 31.4 for men and women, respectively. Although the scope of working hours is relatively higher, employees experience increased employer demands and, consequently, need to invest more time at work (Michel et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref39">45</reflink>]; ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref40">61</reflink>]). This circumstance creates a work-family conflict, commonly defined as a form of inter-role discord in which role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible, in some respects (Kish et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref41">35</reflink>]; Vahedi et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref42">62</reflink>]). Work-family conflict is a state that stems from individuals' limited time and energy, along with multiple and competing roles (i.e. employment and family responsibilities). Research has consistently shown that, for both mothers and fathers, work-family conflict challenges interaction quality in the family and has even been associated with poorer physical and mental health outcomes (Zhou et al., [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref43">67</reflink>]).</p> <p>The literature robustly supports the notion that parents' education level (e.g. no diploma, high school diploma, college degree, or graduate degree) defines their status in the labor market, reflected in their significance of work experience, job security, and other related factors (Loughran & Zissimopoulos, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref44">38</reflink>]; Quirk et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref45">52</reflink>]) that, in turn, form the learning opportunities that will be offered to their offspring (Davis-Kean, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref46">20</reflink>]). This trajectory was found for each spouse. For instance, a more educated mother has been found to use more complex language (Chin & Phillips, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref47">14</reflink>]) and offer more learning stimulation at home (Davis-Kean, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref48">20</reflink>]), thereby enhancing child development (Cuartas, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref49">18</reflink>]). Recent studies have shown that paternal education is associated with paternal provision of support for learning (i.e. books, stimulating interactions) which, in turn, drives early childhood outcomes (Jeong et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref50">32</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref51">31</reflink>]). Building on this, scholars (Jeong et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref52">32</reflink>]) have indicated that the level of education attained by both parents influences their ability to cooperate in establishing a supportive context for learning, which has been found to be a significant pathway in predicting child outcomes.</p> <p>With respect to maternal age, a direct link was found between older maternal age and school readiness (Augustine et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref53">3</reflink>]). Augustine et al. ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref54">3</reflink>]) found that the children of mothers who were older during their first birth demonstrated better school readiness, which resulted in higher math and reading test scores. Rafferty et al. ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref55">53</reflink>]) noted that fertility delays increased maternal emotional maturity, resulting in the mother being more emotionally responsive to the child's requirements and more engaged in constructing cognitively stimulating environments. Furthermore, older mothers were better able to manage their work and family demands. For example, older workers often report higher levels of occupational status, workplace support, decision-making latitude, and job security, which affect the way they manage competing demands (Mennino et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref56">44</reflink>]). However, for fathers, it was found that young (younger than 20 years) and older (up to 50 years) fathers exert negative results at all developmental domains (D'Onofrio et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref57">22</reflink>]; Gajos & Beaver, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref58">27</reflink>]). Advanced paternal age was reported to be significantly associated with children's decreased IQ scores (Gajos & Beaver, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref59">27</reflink>]; Malaspina et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref60">40</reflink>]), thereby elevating the risk for low educational attainment and the receipt of failing grades (D'Onofrio et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref61">22</reflink>]). The assumption is that children of younger and older fathers may be at an increased risk for poor cognitive development following biological mechanisms (cell mutations) (Malaspina et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref62">40</reflink>]) and socioemotional disorders (Buizer-Voskamp et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref63">10</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-3">The current study</hd> <p>There is a vast body of work providing evidence that preschool-age children rely heavily on their parents' capability to invest in resources that will facilitate better developmental outcomes in all domains. Moreover, parental interaction quality plays a key role in parents' ability to employ their resources judiciously. The work-family conflict is a mechanism that may interfere in the balance between family and work needs, along with parental personal antecedents (e.g. age, education, working hours). Most studies that aimed to examine the environmental factor involved in child development following Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref64">9</reflink>]), used parental or researcher reporting to evaluate children's cognitive skills; studies that approached children in the kindergarten to evaluate their capabilities are scarce. Therefore, our aim was to assess children's academic skills directly by observing the nature of child activity in kindergarten along with using kindergarten teachers' reports. This procedure may provide a broad perspective and a more precise assessment of the role of the home environment in children's development. Following the goal of examining the effect of environmental influences on children's development, we used different resources to evaluate children's home environments and skills. Specifically, we intended to assess maternal and paternal interaction quality and examine the link between parental interaction quality, working hours scale, number of learning materials at home, and child cognitive outcomes at kindergarten. Two main indicators were used for assessing cognitive outcomes, namely, teacher assessment of school readiness and the duration of engagement with cognitive activities in kindergarten. The parents evaluated their interaction quality and level of learning stimulations at home.</p> <p>In Israel, kindergartens are conceived as a framework established, among other reasons, to prepare children for school. Most of the kindergartens across Israel are composed of around 35 children and one teacher. Since most parents work, Israel's preschool education division recommendation is that the kindergarten timetable should be between 7:30 am and 2:00 pm. The time period between 7:30 and 8:30 is dedicated to several table games and activities administered by the teacher until all the children arrive. Following this, the teacher gathers the children for a brief meeting involving, for example, motor activity accompanied by music and songs. Between 9:00 and 11:00, the children are invited to take part in all activities in all the kindergarten centers (e.g. the sociodramatic center, construction center, letter writing, drawing, computer games, creative activities, book center). Around seven children may participate in each center. At this time, the children may also join learning activities (e.g. writing letters and numbers, drawing, or playing educational games). In addition, the children may eat their breakfast when they feel like it during this timeline. Between 11:30 am and 1:00, the children are invited to play outdoors. At the end of the day, the students have several relaxation activities. Considering this specific timetable, in this study, the children were observed to engage in cognitive activities in the kindergarten between the hours of 9:00 and 11:00.</p> <p>The research questions the study aimed to address are as follows:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Does maternal interaction quality differ from paternal interaction quality? Which demographic factors (parental age, parental education, and working hours) are linked to parental interaction quality?</item> <p></p> <item> Is parental interaction quality linked to the quality of the learning materials at home? What are the demographic factors (parental age, parental education, and working hours) associated with the quality of learning materials at home?</item> <p></p> <item> Do parental interaction quality and learning materials demonstrate the same effect on children's academic functioning?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0183372066-4">Study design</hd> <p>To explore the link between children's home environment and their achievements, we selected the quantitative approach. In quantitative studies, the researcher uses standardized questionnaires or experiments to collect numeric data. Quantitative research may be used to determine relationships between variables and outcomes (Bloomfield & Fisher, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref65">5</reflink>]). In this study, data were collected by questioners and observations by three major resources: mothers, kindergarten teachers, and children. Questioners collected data about the children's home environment, and a survey was administered to kindergarten teachers to assess children's school readiness. All questioners gathered qualitative data. Furthermore, the researchers observed the children during their activities in kindergarten to mark the precise time duration of the children's engagement with academic materials.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-5">Research hypotheses</hd> <p></p> <ulist> <item> In line with recent findings, we postulate that interaction quality is formed by both parents, and parental age and education play significant roles in interaction quality. However, following the historic role attributed to mothers with respect to childcare and based on a vast body of evidence indicating the critical role of mothers in development (Ainsworth et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref66">1</reflink>]; Bornstein & Manian, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref67">6</reflink>]; Bowlby, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref68">7</reflink>]), we postulate that mothers provide higher interaction quality than fathers and that maternal interaction quality is defined by the range of the mothers' working hours.</item> <p></p> <item> The second assumption is that both parents are involved in defining the learning stimulation at home following the likelihood that both engage and play with the child.</item> <p></p> <item> We postulate that both parental interaction quality and learning material quality at home affect a child's academic outcomes. This is premised on the positive effect of active parental involvement in a child's academic achievements (Bornstein & Manian, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref69">6</reflink>]) and following findings indicating that the stimulation level children receive at home is significantly linked with their academic outcomes and overall well-being (Jeong et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref70">32</reflink>]; McDermott et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref71">43</reflink>]; Orr, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref72">50</reflink>]; Wolf & McCoy, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref73">65</reflink>]).</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0183372066-6">Methodology</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183372066-7">Participants</hd> <p>After approval was obtained from the ethics committee of the researchers' academic institute and permission was received from the chief scientist in Israel's Ministry of Education, children were recruited in kindergartens. Upon receiving consent, the researchers located six public kindergartens located in northern, central, and southern Israel to pinpoint mothers who would be willing to participate in the study. Mothers who affirmed their participation and that their children did not have any developmental issues signed an informed consent form. Overall, the participants in this study included kindergarten children (<emph>n</emph> = 91; 45 girls, 46 boys) aged between 4–5 years old from six different kindergartens in Israel, their parents (91 mothers and 91 fathers), and their kindergarten teachers (<emph>n</emph> = 6). The mean age of the kindergarten teachers was 34.21 (standard deviation [SD] = 3.61 years). All the kindergarten teachers were female, married, and held college degrees. Around 15 children participated from each kindergarten. Kindergartens were selected from three districts in Israel (northern, central, and southern), with two kindergartens from each district. Most of the parents (94%) were native Israeli Jewish working adults from middle-high SES. The mean maternal age was 37.41 (standard deviation [SD] = 4.71 years); the mean paternal age was 34.65 years (SD = 4.74 years). Each couple had at least one child in the age range of 4–5 years. All the parent participants worked full time. The average real work hours were 31.18 h per week for the mothers (SD = 10.86 h) and 42.30 h for the fathers (SD = 9.69 h). The distribution of parent education in percentages is presented in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1. Percentage of Parental Education.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Parental Education</td><td>Mother (<italic>n</italic> = 91)</td><td>Father (<italic>n</italic> = 91)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Elementary School</td><td char="." /><td char=".">11</td></tr><tr><td>Complete High School</td><td char=".">20.9</td><td char=".">17.7</td></tr><tr><td>Bachelor's Degree</td><td char=".">79.1</td><td char=".">71.4</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0183372066-8">Measures</hd> <p>Several different areas were assessed during this study, including parental working hour range, parent–child interaction quality and learning stimulation quality at home. The children's academic achievement outcomes were assessed by measuring the accurate timescale of engaging in cognitive activities in the kindergarten setting and the teachers' assessment of each child's school readiness, as elaborated below.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-9">Parent–child interaction quality</hd> <p>The questionnaire developed by Cinamon et al. ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref74">15</reflink>]) was used for assessing the quality of parent–child interaction. This questionnaire includes 16 items on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A total of seven questions referred to the parent's pleasure, satisfaction and interest in the relationship with his/her child and nine referred to parental interaction quality to attend to the child's needs (fatigue, attention, patience, attentiveness). Cronbach's alpha reliabilities were calculated based on the sample of the current study; the mothers' and the fathers' interaction quality was 0.94 and 0.88, respectively. The average score in the questionnaire was calculated for each participant. A high score indicates high parental interaction quality.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-10">Learning materials in the home environment</hd> <p>The survey was composed of 21 brief statements based on items from the Cognitively Stimulating Home Environment (CSHE) interview, observation and questionnaires (Gottfried et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref75">28</reflink>]). The brief statements were scored on a Likert scale from 1 to 5 (1 = absolutely true; 5 = absolutely untrue). The statements referred to stimuli in the home environments (e.g. educational games, books, musical instruments, TV, computers) and outdoors (e.g. playground, traveling, visiting museums). The Cronbach's alpha reliabilities based on the sample of the current study for the level of learning materials in the home environment given by mothers and fathers were 0.86 and 0.88, respectively. The average score in the questionnaire was calculated for each participant. A high score indicates a high level of learning materials in the home environment.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-11">Children's academic activity observation</hd> <p>The direct observation of children's academic engaged time (AET) was adapted from Draper et al. ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref76">23</reflink>]). In the current research, the observation was between 9:00 and 11:00 am based on the schedule used in kindergartens across Israel. Two graduate students followed the children in the kindergarten setting for two-hour sessions to increase the reliability of the gathered data. Both observers measured the children's behaviors by starting a stopwatch whenever a child was engaged in one or more of the following six behaviors: looking at reading materials, playing academic games, writing with a pencil or crayon, playing computer games, and counting and participating in mathematical games. The observers stopped the watches when the child was no longer engaged in one of these behaviors. The reliability of the observation relied on real-time agreement between the observers about the start and end times of the activity chosen. The Cronbach's alpha reliability was 0.64. For each child, we calculated a mean of six observations by using the <emph>z</emph>-score of each observation.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-12">School readiness survey</hd> <p>The children's school readiness was assessed directly using the screening instrument developed by Stormont et al. ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref77">59</reflink>]). This is a short, direct, holistic assessment tool using a five-point scale (poor, fair, good, very good and excellent), and it assesses kindergarten academic behavior readiness (K-ABR). The screener consists of three items that investigate a child's ability to follow behavioral and academic expectations. The average score of the kindergarten teacher's assessment in the survey for each child was calculated. The Cronbach's alpha reliability calculated based on the sample of the current study was.89. To assess construct discriminant validity, we examined the association between the School Readiness Survey and the children's AET. The correlation between these two measurements was not significant (<emph>r </emph>=.21 <emph>p</emph> >.05), indicating that there was construct discriminant validity, and we should use one score for school readiness and another for cognitive activity (AET).</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-13">Demographic questionnaire</hd> <p>In the demographic questionnaire, the personal questions referred to background details (e.g. year of birth, education, number of children in the family, income) and questions concerning work (e.g. scale of work hours, seniority).</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-14">Procedure</hd> <p>The data were collected step-by-step for close to a year by six graduate student research assistants. The parents were told that participating in the study was entirely voluntary and masked and that they were free to end their participation at any time. Parents who decided to participate in the study received an envelope that contained a set of three questionnaires for each spouse. The kindergarten teachers were responsible for the envelope exchange and completing the school readiness questionnaire for each child. The research assistants visited the children in the kindergartens to gather data about their AET.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-15">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183372066-16">Analytic plan</hd> <p>To investigate the first research question, a paired-sample t-test was used for examining whether the parents differed in their interaction quality. Then, Pearson correlations and independent-sample t-tests were used for exploring the correlations between demographic factors and parental interactions. Linear regression was employed for pinpointing which demographic factors predicted parental interaction quality. In the next phase, to examine the second research question, we explored the variables involved in using learning materials at home. Two-step hierarchical linear regression analysis was undertaken to explore which of the demographic factors predicted the level of learning materials at home and if the parental interaction quality explains the variant of the level of learning stimulation at home. Each regression analysis was undertaken for each parent separately. Finally, for the third research question, we applied a three-step hierarchical regression for determining which variables predicted children's academic outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-17">Parental interaction quality</hd> <p>The first phase in the analysis was investigating whether the parents differed in their interaction quality. The paired-sample <emph>t</emph>-tests showed that the mothers' interaction quality, (M = 3.63 SD = 0.93) was significantly higher than that of the fathers, (M = 3.11, SD = 0.66, t<subs>(<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref78">90</reflink>)</subs> = 5.86, <emph>p</emph> <.001). Nevertheless, regardless of the differences found between the interaction quality, a significant connection was observed between maternal and paternal interaction qualities (<emph>r </emph>=.49, <emph>p</emph> <.001). Specifically, there was a similar pattern between fathers and mothers in terms of the interaction quality they provided. The second step was investigating which demographic factors (parental age, working hours and parental education) are linked to parental interaction quality. Pearson correlations and t-tests for independent variables were conducted for this purpose. The Pearson correlations revealed a significant negative correlation between maternal interaction quality and number of working hours (<emph>r </emph>= −.29, <emph>p</emph> =.005). Specifically, increasing the working hours led to a reduction in maternal interaction quality. No significant correlations were found between paternal interaction quality and number of working hours (<emph>r = </emph>−.12<emph>, p = </emph>.25) or paternal age (<emph>r = </emph>−.12, <emph>p = </emph>.27). In addition, no significant correlation was found between maternal interaction quality and age (<emph>r = </emph>.12, <emph>p = </emph>.25).</p> <p>In terms of parental education, two t-tests for independent variables were employed to investigate the difference in parental interaction quality while comparing parents with a bachelor's degree and those who had completed high school or elementary school. The results showed no significant difference between the mothers (<emph>t</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref79">89</reflink>)</subs> = 0.53, <emph>p</emph> =.60) and the fathers (<emph>t</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref80">89</reflink>)</subs> = −1.68, <emph>p</emph> =.10).</p> <p>Further, two stepwise linear regression analyses were conducted to examine each parent and determine which factors in a quadratic model (parental age, education, working hours and SES) predict parental interaction quality. We found that maternal working hours accounted for 9% of the differences in interaction quality (<emph>F</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref81">1</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref82">89</reflink>) </subs>= 8.36, <emph>p </emph>=.005). Notably, the quadratic model did not explain the differences found regarding paternal interaction quality.</p> <p>To summarize, in order to investigate the first research question that involved examining whether the parents differed in their interaction quality and what factors framed this parameter, the findings confirm our first research hypothesis. It showed that the mothers exhibited higher interaction quality compared with the fathers. In terms of the demographic factors (parental age, education, working hours), a link was found between maternal interaction quality and working hours, that is, an increase in working hours reduced maternal interaction quality.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-18">Quality of learning materials at home</hd> <p>The second aim of the study was to explore the factors affecting the learning material quality at home. We employed two hierarchical linear regression analyses with two steps each for examining in step 1 which of the factors (parental age, education, working hours) are involved in the learning materials' quality. In the second step, it was examined if the parental interaction quality is an additional factor that explains the variant of the learning stimulation quality at home after controlling the effect of the demographic variables. Bringing all the variables in step 1 makes it possible to examine the relationship of each of the demographic variables with the learning materials' quality after determining the covariance of the other variables that are in the equation. The analyses indicated that the mother's education, age and working hours accounted for 7% of the differences found in the learning materials' quality, and maternal interaction quality added another 19% to the explanation (<emph>F</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref83">4</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref84">86</reflink>) </subs>= 7.63, <emph>p </emph><.001). The same results were found for paternal interaction. The demographic variables explained 16% of the differences found in the learning materials' quality, and paternal interaction quality added another 25% to the explanation (<emph>F</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref85">4</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref86">86</reflink>) </subs>= 15.15, <emph>p </emph><.001). Specifically, a high score of learning materials was achieved by more educated parents and younger but mostly by parents with more quality interaction (Table 2). The results confirm our second hypothesis.</p> <p>Table 2. Regression Analysis for Learning Materials at Home by Demographic Variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Learning materials' quality</td></tr><tr><td>Predictors</td><td>Father (β)</td><td>Mother (β)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Step 1</td><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td> Age</td><td char=".">−.24**</td><td char=".">−.24*</td></tr><tr><td> Parent's education<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn2">a</xref></td><td char=".">.22*</td><td char=".">.21*</td></tr><tr><td> Parent's working hours</td><td char=".">.16</td><td char=".">.13</td></tr><tr><td> ΔR<sup>2</sup></td><td char=".">.16***</td><td char=".">.70</td></tr><tr><td>Step 2</td><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td> Parental interaction quality</td><td char=".">.52***</td><td char=".">.46***</td></tr><tr><td> ΔR<sup>2</sup></td><td char=".">.25***</td><td char=".">.19***</td></tr><tr><td>Total <italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td><td char=".">.41***</td><td char=".">.26***</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph> *p</emph> <.05, <emph>**p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001</p> <p>2 (0 = high school or elementary school; a bachelor's degree)</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-19">Children's academic outcomes</hd> <p>The main question of this study was whether parental interaction quality and quality of learning materials at home are linked to children's academic outcomes, which was evaluated based on the level of engagement with cognitive activities in the kindergarten setting and the teachers' assessments of the children's school readiness. To answer this question, we applied four learner hierarchical regressions with three steps. For each regression, the predicted variable was the children's academic outcome score. More specifically, since children's achievements are underpinned by two measurements—engaging in cognitive activity and assessing school readiness—we carried out separate analyses for each score and each parent (see Table 3). In step 1, we entered the parental demographic variables (age range, education, working hours) to control the effect of those variables on the child's academic functioning. In step 2, we entered the parental interaction quality, and in the last step, we entered the learning materials' quality. The dependent variable was one of the child's academic outcomes. We then present the result for each spouse.</p> <p>Table 3. Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Children's Academic Functioning by Demographic Variables, Parental Interaction Quality and Quality of Learning Materials at Home.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Children's scores</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Cognitive activity</td><td>School readiness</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Father</td><td>Mother</td><td>Father</td><td>Mother</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Parental predictors</td><td char=".">β</td><td char=".">β</td><td char=".">β</td><td char=".">β</td></tr><tr><td>Step 1</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td char=".">.12</td><td char=".">-.01</td><td char=".">-.01</td><td char=".">.13</td></tr><tr><td>Education<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">a</xref></td><td char=".">-.10</td><td char=".">-.15</td><td char=".">-.10</td><td char=".">-.08</td></tr><tr><td>Working hours</td><td char=".">-.01</td><td char=".">-.07</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">-.05</td></tr><tr><td>ΔR<sup>2</sup></td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.02</td></tr><tr><td>Step 2</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td>Interaction quality</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.00</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.14</td></tr><tr><td>ΔR<sup>2</sup></td><td char=".">.10**</td><td char=".">.07*</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">11.4***</td></tr><tr><td>Step 3</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td>Learning materials</td><td char=".">.52***</td><td char=".">.57***</td><td char=".">.65***</td><td char=".">.48***</td></tr><tr><td>ΔR<sup>2</sup></td><td char=".">.16***</td><td char=".">.24***</td><td char=".">.25***</td><td char=".">16.6***</td></tr><tr><td>Total <italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td><td char=".">.27***</td><td char=".">.33***</td><td char=".">.33***</td><td char=".">.29***</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>3 Notes: The data presented in the table are from the last step.</item> <item>4 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, <emph>**p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001</item> <item>5 (0 = elementary/high school education; 1 = academic education)</item> </ulist> <p>For the fathers, we found that paternal age accounted for 9% of the difference in the children's level of engagement with cognitive activities in kindergarten (β = −.22). Paternal working hours added 6% to the explanation (β =.18), and quality of learning materials at home added a further 7% to the differences in the level of engagement (β =.56).</p> <p>The paternal interaction quality accounted for 10% of the difference in the children's level of engagement with cognitive activities in kindergarten after controlling for demographic variables (as depicted in step 1) (β = 0.32). Learning materials provided at home added a further 16% to the differences in cognitive engagement after controlling for demographic variables and maternal interaction quality (as depicted in steps 1 and 2). After controlling for the learning materials, the direct influences of maternal interaction quality was no longer significant. That is, the more the father provided his child with learning materials at home, the more he encouraged the child to engage in cognitive activities in kindergarten.</p> <p>In terms of school readiness, the regression analysis indicated that learning materials at home constitute the main predictor of school readiness (β = 0.65) (Table 3).</p> <p>The analysis related to the mothers indicated that maternal interaction quality accounted for 7% of the differences in cognitive engagement after controlling for demographic variables (as depicted in step 1) (β = 0.27). Maternal interaction quality was associated with a higher level of child engagement with cognitive activities in the kindergarten setting. However, learning materials provided at home added a further 24% to the differences in cognitive engagement after controlling for demographic variables and maternal interaction quality (as depicted in steps 1 and 2). After controlling the learning materials, the direct influences of the maternal interaction quality was no longer significant. This means that the learning materials provided at home constituted the strongest connection to encourage children to engage more in cognitive activities in kindergarten. In terms of school readiness, a similar pattern was found in the results. The variable that significantly explained school readiness among mothers was the learning materials' rate at home (16.6%, β = 0.48). Maternal interaction added 11.4% to the differences in school readiness (β = 0.36), but it was only significant in step 2 before the learning materials were included in the model. Specifically, children who were highly exposed to learning materials at home exhibited better readiness for school (Table 3). In conclusion, the paternal and maternal interaction qualities and the quality of learning materials at home both play significant roles in children's academic outcomes based on an examination of the level of engagement with cognitive activities in the kindergarten setting and the teacher's assessment of the child's school readiness. However, the learning materials at home are the main predictor of the children's academic outcomes, and the parents' interaction quality is related to the children's ability, likely indirectly through the learning materials. These results partly approve the third hypothesis only about the link between the learning materials' quality and the children's academic functioning.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-20">Discussion</hd> <p>This study evaluated the influences of parental interaction quality and learning stimulation at home, along with the demographic circumstances of each parent, in children's pre-academic outcomes. The latter was tested based on the level of engagement in cognitive activities in kindergarten and the teachers' assessments of the children's school readiness. Results indicated that parental interaction quality and learning materials at home are involved in children's achievements. It was also found that mothers display higher interaction quality than fathers, and that an increase in maternal working hours reduces maternal interaction quality. With respect to demographic circumstances, it was found that parental education and age play roles in children's achievements, but probably in a less direct manner and likely indirectly through learning materials. The discussion will explain point-by-point the association found between factors in the home environment and the demographic antecedents in children's achievements.</p> <p>Above all, in the current study, we found that parental interaction quality and the level of stimulation at home are two factors that play a role in children's school readiness and level of involvement in cognitive activities in a kindergarten setting. It seems that children's interest in cognitive activities in kindergarten and their readiness for school is driven by the quality of the learning stimulation provided at home and the quality of involvement of their parents. Parents who provide children with qualitative learning material such as educational games, books, and musical instruments expose them to cognitive challenges and expand their willingness to engage with learning materials and invest in cognitive endeavors; however, providing the learning stimulus is not sufficient. Rather, the presence of caregivers during play or learning activities is necessary. The caregiver encourages and mediates the learning process, which eventually increases academic engagement time (Napoli & Purpura, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref87">49</reflink>]). According to this study, a prolonged pre-academic engagement time at home has positive consequences for the time children invest in cognitive activities such as letter writing, drawing, and play in the main kindergarten's centers (e.g. sociodramatic, construction, book center). Overall, this finding is in agreement with recent studies that emphasize the role of both parents in the child's development (Camden et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref88">11</reflink>]). This study strengthens the notion that, to increase the likelihood of learning, two factors need to occur: engagement time with learning materials and parental guidelines (Colliver et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref89">17</reflink>]; Loprinzi et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref90">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>In this study, the ability of parents to choose the appropriate learning materials was found to be associated with the parents' level of education. Parents with higher education levels may perceive learning materials such as books to be sources of valuable learning stimulation. As a result, they may increase the number of books and the time scale dedicated to book reading, thereby enhancing children's cognitive outcomes (Duncan et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref91">25</reflink>]). An additional background factor found to play a role in a child's achievement is parental age. It was found that children's positive cognitive outcomes are related to relatively younger parents. It may be assumed that younger parents likely have smaller families and, therefore, may be able to direct sufficient resources in terms of time and energy towards their offspring. However, it was found in this study that the rate of working hours hampers parental interaction quality, mainly that of the maternal interaction. According to the theory of energy (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref92">61</reflink>]), the personal resources (e.g. time, energy, and mood) that individuals invest in each domain of their lives are linked. Therefore, individuals tend to allocate their resources according to the level of demand in one domain, which has an outcome in the other domain. In the model for the work-home interface suggested by ten Brummelhuis and Bakker ([<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref93">61</reflink>]), demands in the workplace (e.g. demand for more working hours, increase in job complexity) lead to increases in time, cognitive energy, and physical energy expended there. In this study, we found that mothers, more than fathers, tend to provide higher interaction quality. Therefore, increasing maternal working hours, which adds to the energy and time invested in household chores (e.g. laundry, cleaning, cooking), may have far-reaching consequences for maternal availability, thereby drastically affecting maternal interaction quality.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-21">Conclusion, limitations and future direction</hd> <p>The current study indicated that child achievements are directly affected by parental interaction quality. Qualitative interaction is characterized by parental attentiveness, monitoring, and directing children's behaviors. The combination of parental qualities with the quality of games and activities provided at home establishes for children a potential for learning and development. However, parental interaction quality in many respect defined by external factors, mainly by parental working hours.</p> <p>The current study has several take-home messages. Parents should calculate the time that they need to invest in work and at home and recruit support, for example, from another family member. This support enables parents to be more available to the children. Parents should examine the benefit and contribution of toys and invest in play materials through which the children can learn and develop their skills. Teachers should monitor children's activity patterns in the kindergarten and direct the activities at home, when needed, by explaining the child's needs to the parents and providing recommendations for activities that are appropriate for the child's needs. It is recommended that stakeholders increase employers' awareness of family needs to better define the time dedicated to work and to family.</p> <p>The study limitations relate to the cohort sample, variables explored, and the children's age ranges. More work is needed to further explore the variables that affect and mediate the role of the parents' workplaces. Future studies may explore and define the solutions that workplaces adopt to enhance support for employees' family needs. Further, research that examines the differences in the levels of support provided to parents by other family members may highlight the role of the extended family in child development and in reducing work-family conflict. Studies should explore the differences in learning environment design afforded by parents with more and less education to pinpoint the gap in learning materials provided and suggest trajectories to reduce this gap.</p> <hd id="AN0183372066-22">Declaration of interest and compliance with ethical standards</hd> <p></p> <ulist> <item> The authors declare that they have no conflicting interests or anything that might be interpreted as a factor influencing the research.</item> <p></p> <item> The authors declare that all procedures performed in the studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institution and/or the national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or other comparable ethical standards.</item> <p></p> <item> The authors declare that informed consent was obtained from all individuals who participated in the study.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0183372066-23">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0183372066-24"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref66" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Ainsworth, M. 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Work–family conflict and mental health among female employees: A sequential mediation model via negative affect and perceived stress. Frontiers in Psychology, 9), https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00544</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Edna Orr and Rinat Caspi</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Edna Orr , The head of the Quantitative Unit for Final project M.Ed. and M.Ed Thesis supervisor in "Gordon academic college of education", Haifa. Her research focuses on the cognitive development of infants and children. The essential cognitive skills that she explored pertain to play, language, early literacy, and school readiness, which were examined from a dynamic perspective that considers the ecological and personal factors involved in the developmental process. This inclusive trajectory seeks a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in development.</p> <p>Rinat Caspi , Ph.D. Over 16 years of teaching and studying early childhood education and special education. Currently works at the Givat Washington Academic College of Education. She is the head of the Department of Education and a member of the Research Authority in Givat Washington Academic College. Her fields of expertise: mediated learning experience, kindergarten teachers, kindergarten assistants, the process of training pre-service kindergarten teachers, and the implications of media consumption among children.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib90" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib89" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib86" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref91"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
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PubType: Academic Journal
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Parents and More: The Multidimensional Factors Involved in Children's Cognitive Achievements
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Edna+Orr%22">Edna Orr</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1652-2861">0000-0002-1652-2861</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rinat+Caspi%22">Rinat Caspi</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Child+Care+in+Practice%22"><i>Child Care in Practice</i></searchLink>. 2025 31(1):85-102.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 18
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cognitive+Development%22">Cognitive Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Children%22">Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parents%22">Parents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Work+Life+Expectancy%22">Work Life Expectancy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Outcomes+of+Education%22">Outcomes of Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Individual+Characteristics%22">Individual Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Age%22">Age</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Employment%22">Employment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Child+Relationship%22">Parent Child Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Home+Study%22">Home Study</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Instructional+Materials%22">Instructional Materials</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mothers%22">Mothers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Fathers%22">Fathers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Background%22">Educational Background</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Age+Differences%22">Age Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Children%22">Preschool Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Israel%22">Israel</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/13575279.2022.2084366
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1357-5279<br />1476-489X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The association between parents' work-family conflicts and children's academic outcomes is an understudied topic. The present research investigates the role of quadratic measures--parental working hours' scale, parental age, parental interaction quality, and learning materials at home--in children's cognitive outcomes. It employs a community sample of 91 children aged 4-5 years, their parents and their kindergarten teachers. The results indicate that parents' interaction quality and learning materials at home are the main factors affecting children's academic outcomes. Notably, mothers provide higher interaction quality than fathers. Parental education and age play roles in children's academic outcomes, but probably in a less direct manner and likely indirectly through learning materials. "Working hours" is a factor associated with the interaction quality affecting mothers to a higher degree. The results are discussed in terms of resource allocation modality; they emphasize the importance of parental interaction quality in shaping children's cognitive environment and development.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1464083
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1464083
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/13575279.2022.2084366
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 18
        StartPage: 85
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Cognitive Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Work Life Expectancy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Outcomes of Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Individual Characteristics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Age
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Employment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Child Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Home Study
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Instructional Materials
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mothers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Fathers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Background
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Age Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Israel
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Parents and More: The Multidimensional Factors Involved in Children's Cognitive Achievements
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Edna Orr
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Rinat Caspi
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1357-5279
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1476-489X
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 31
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Child Care in Practice
              Type: main
ResultId 1