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The Middle School Blues: Temporal Directionality between Teaching Behavior and Students' Affect

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Title: The Middle School Blues: Temporal Directionality between Teaching Behavior and Students' Affect
Language: English
Authors: Patrick Pössel (ORCID 0000-0002-5851-4253), Shelby M. Burton
Source: Child & Youth Care Forum. 2025 54(3):571-588.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Junior High Schools
Middle Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Middle School Teachers, Middle School Students, Teacher Student Relationship, Teacher Behavior, Mental Health, Teacher Influence, Outcomes of Education
DOI: 10.1007/s10566-024-09829-1
ISSN: 1053-1890
1573-3319
Abstract: Background: Research clearly points toward a relationship between teaching behavior and students' affect. The relations between teaching behavior and middle school students' mental health, in the form of positive and negative affect, are particularly important to understanding how school-based clinicians can provide support for teachers and students alike. However, studies examining the relationship between teaching behavior and students' positive and negative affect are largely cross-sectional and focus on high school students. Objective: Our objective was to determine the temporal directionality between instructional, negative, organizational, and socio-emotional teaching behavior and affect in middle school students. Methods: At two time points, 335 students in grades 6 to 8 (mean age: 12.59; SD = 1.01; 47.4% female) filled out the Teaching Behavior Questionnaire and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale. Results: Our two-level hierarchical linear model analyses revealed no significant associations between teaching behavior and positive affect (ps > 0.05). However, socio-emotional teaching behavior and negative affect were positively and bidirectionally associated (ps < 0.01). Further, negative teaching behavior (p < 0.01) was positively associated with later negative affect and negative affect was negatively associated with later instructional teaching behavior (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Our findings highlight the differences in the existence and temporal directionality of associations between the different types of teaching behavior and students' positive and negative affect. In particular, different types of teaching behavior are only associated with students' negative but not positive affect. Experimental studies with students from more diverse ethnical and racial background are needed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1471114
Database: ERIC
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  Value: &lt;anid&gt;AN0185155349;5jr01jun.25;2025May16.03:44;v2.2.500&lt;/anid&gt; &lt;title id=&quot;AN0185155349-1&quot;&gt;The Middle School Blues: Temporal Directionality Between Teaching Behavior and Students&#39; Affect&#160;&lt;/title&gt; &lt;p&gt;Background: Research clearly points toward a relationship between teaching behavior and students&#39; affect. The relations between teaching behavior and middle school students&#39; mental health, in the form of positive and negative affect, are particularly important to understanding how school-based clinicians can provide support for teachers and students alike. However, studies examining the relationship between teaching behavior and students&#39; positive and negative affect are largely cross-sectional and focus on high school students. Objective: Our objective was to determine the temporal directionality between instructional, negative, organizational, and socio-emotional teaching behavior and affect in middle school students. Methods: At two time points, 335 students in grades 6 to 8 (mean age: 12.59; SD = 1.01; 47.4% female) filled out the Teaching Behavior Questionnaire and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale. Results: Our two-level hierarchical linear model analyses revealed no significant associations between teaching behavior and positive affect (ps &amp;gt; 0.05). However, socio-emotional teaching behavior and negative affect were positively and bidirectionally associated (ps &amp;lt; 0.01). Further, negative teaching behavior (p &amp;lt;.01) was positively associated with later negative affect and negative affect was negatively associated with later instructional teaching behavior (p &amp;lt;.01). Conclusions: Our findings highlight the differences in the existence and temporal directionality of associations between the different types of teaching behavior and students&#39; positive and negative affect. In particular, different types of teaching behavior are only associated with students&#39; negative but not positive affect. Experimental studies with students from more diverse ethnical and racial background are needed.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Keywords: Adolescence; Teaching behavior; Affect; Middle school students; Depressive symptoms; Psychology and Cognitive Sciences Psychology Education Specialist Studies In Education&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-024-09829-1.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Although there is theoretical (Furman et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib13&quot; id=&quot;ref1&quot;&gt;13&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Slavich &amp;amp; Zimbardo, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref2&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;]) and empirical support for associations between teaching behavior and affect in high school students (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref3&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]) and depressive symptoms in middle school students (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref4&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]), two significant gaps remain. First, research on the association between teaching behavior and affect in middle school students is missing. Evidence of this association would allow us to draw more precise conclusions about depressive symptoms, as positive and negative affect are part of the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) for depression (Woody &amp;amp; Gibb, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib40&quot; id=&quot;ref5&quot;&gt;40&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Second, as previous research on teaching behavior and students&#39; affect and depressive symptoms has largely been cross-sectional (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref6&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]; P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref7&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]), the temporal directionality of the association between teaching behavior and affect is unclear. Therefore, the objective of our 2-wave longitudinal study was to determine the temporal directionality between student-reported instructional, negative, organizational, and socio-emotional teaching behavior and the affect of middle school students.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-2&quot;&gt;Clark and Watson&#39;s Tripartite Model and Adolescent Depressive Symptoms&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;In their tripartite model, Clark and Watson ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref8&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;]) propose that depression is a combination of low levels of positive affect (e.g., happy, cheerful, proud) and high levels of negative affect (e.g., frightened, sad, miserable). Previous studies demonstrate that the tripartite model is a valid way to understand depression in adolescents (S&#225;nchez Hern&#225;ndez et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib32&quot; id=&quot;ref9&quot;&gt;32&lt;/reflink&gt;]), demonstrating that measuring affect is comparable to depressive symptoms and vice versa (for a meta-analysis, see Khazanov &amp;amp; Ruscio, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref10&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Further, the tripartite model is a preferred method to conceptualize adolescent psychopathology because it provides more comprehensive information about the developmental course of disorders compared to other depression-specific conceptualizations (De Bolle &amp;amp; De Fruyt, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref11&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;]). These findings suggest that conceptualizing depression in middle school students as a combination of high negative affect and low positive affect is appropriate and advantageous. Given the support for the tripartite model, the National Institute of Mental Health uses positive and negative affect as part of the RDoC (Woody &amp;amp; Gibb, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib40&quot; id=&quot;ref12&quot;&gt;40&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Thus, in the current study, we will use positive and negative affect to measure depression.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-3&quot;&gt;Social Constructivism, Teaching Behavior, and Middle School Students&#39; Affect&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;In his theory of social constructivism, Vygotsky ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref13&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref14&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]) proposes that our beliefs about the world and the self are shaped by social and cultural context. Social constructivism has been applied to the classroom setting (Slavich &amp;amp; Zimbardo, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref15&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;]) and to some components of mental health (Furman et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib13&quot; id=&quot;ref16&quot;&gt;13&lt;/reflink&gt;]). From a social constructivism perspective, teachers are one of the main figures contributing to students&#39; developing beliefs about the world and the self (Slavich &amp;amp; Zimbardo, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref17&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Teachers are seen as responsible for creating relationships that facilitate learning and personal development—including a student&#39;s emotions and feelings associated with the self and the world (Slavich &amp;amp; Zimbardo, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref18&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Consistent with this view, teacher-related variables such as teaching behaviors are proposed to impact students&#39; mental health (Reddy et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib31&quot; id=&quot;ref19&quot;&gt;31&lt;/reflink&gt;]). In our study, we focus on four types of student-reported teaching behavior that correspond with social constructivism (Vygotsky, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref20&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref21&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]): instructional, negative, organizational, and socio-emotional teaching behavior (Allen et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref22&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;]). In particular, Slavich and Zimbardo ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref23&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;]) provide recommendations that map onto these four teaching behaviors, such as critical thinking and skill development (i.e., instructional), emphasis on guidelines and structure (i.e., organizational), and establishment of a warm, accepting environment (i.e., socio-emotional), with all three in stark contrast to negative teaching behavior (e.g., unsupportive, inconsistent, moody).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Previous studies revealed cross-sectional associations between student-reported teaching behavior and depressive symptoms in middle and high school students (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref24&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]) as well as positive affect and negative affect in high school students (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref25&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). However, findings regarding high school students cannot be easily applied to middle school students due to the extensive cognitive changes during adolescence (for a meta-analysis, see Dotson et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib10&quot; id=&quot;ref26&quot;&gt;10&lt;/reflink&gt;]). With this in mind, the following review of the literature will focus on middle school students, often relying on depressive symptomatology to inform hypotheses regarding affect, and their relationships between the four types of teaching behavior.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-4&quot;&gt;Instructional Teaching Behavior&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Instructional teaching behavior refers to academically supportive acts, such as delivering constructive feedback, promoting autonomy, and fostering an open learning environment (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref27&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Teachers may incorporate these strategies by utilizing examples that students understand or by making requirements clear (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref28&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). In Pittard et al.&#39;s ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref29&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]) study, student-reported instructional teaching behavior and depressive symptoms were negatively related in middle school students. However, this study was cross-sectional, so the temporal direction of the association is unclear.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-5&quot;&gt;Negative Teaching Behavior&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Negative teaching behavior highlights unpleasant, unnecessarily intimidating, or counter-productive behavior that often results in an unsupportive and potentially deleterious academic and emotional environment (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref30&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;]). For instance, teachers demonstrate negative teaching behavior by threatening punishment, demonstrating inconsistencies, or acting moody (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref31&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Cross-sectional studies have found that negative teaching behavior, like perpetual criticism, is associated with higher negative affect (Somersalo et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib34&quot; id=&quot;ref32&quot;&gt;34&lt;/reflink&gt;]), lower positive affect (Somersalo et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib34&quot; id=&quot;ref33&quot;&gt;34&lt;/reflink&gt;]), and more depressive symptoms (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref34&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]) in students. However, we are not aware of longitudinal studies that would allow us to examine the temporal directionality of the associations between negative teaching behavior and affect in students.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-6&quot;&gt;Organizational Teaching Behavior&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Organizational teaching behavior emphasizes classroom management, like consistent adherence to clearly communicated guidelines and structure, fluidity of transitions within classroom activities, and effective minimization of disruptions (Allen et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref35&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;]). For example, a teacher practicing organizational skills would review the class agenda daily and display classroom standards as well as the consequences for violating these standards. Further, such teachers would follow through with announced consequences for violating these standards (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref36&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). However, Pittard et al. ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref37&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found a positive cross-sectional relation between student-reported organizational teaching behavior and depressive symptoms in middle school students. Pittard and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref38&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]) interpreted this finding as middle school students misconstruing organizational behavior as being overly strict or critical on a personal level, rather than being critical of a certain behavior or task.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-7&quot;&gt;Socio-Emotional Teaching Behavior&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Whether inside or outside of the classroom, socio-emotional teaching behavior refers to the efforts made by teachers to know their students on a personal level, by being accepting of diverse backgrounds and thoughts, harboring feelings of belongingness, and providing warmth (Allen et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref39&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;]). For instance, a teacher who demonstrates these strategies may discuss student interests that take place outside of the classroom (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref40&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Research points to a complicated relationship between socio-emotional teaching behavior and depressive symptoms. Pittard and her colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref41&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]) did not find any significant relation between student-reported socio-emotional teaching behavior and depressive symptoms in middle school students, while P&#246;ssel et al. ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref42&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found positive associations between student-reported socio-emotional teaching behavior and both positive affect and negative affect in high school students. However, as pointed out above, findings from high school students cannot simply be applied to middle school students.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-8&quot;&gt;Temporal Directionality of Teaching Behavior and Students&#39; Affect&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;As previously stated, there some evidence that teacher related variables are associated with students&#39; mental health, such as affect (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref43&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]) and depressive symptoms (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref44&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Nevertheless, there is a dearth of studies regarding the temporal directionality of these relations, including ways that students&#39; mental health may impact teaching behavior and other closely related teacher variables. Some of this evidence will be examined below. Temporal directionality is key when designing interventions that use teaching behavior, capitalizing not only on how teaching behavior is related to students&#39; affect but also on how students&#39; affect might predict teaching behavior.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In their longitudinal study with middle school students, Reddy et al. ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib31&quot; id=&quot;ref45&quot;&gt;31&lt;/reflink&gt;]) examined both possible temporal directions of the association between student-reported teacher support—a construct similar to socio-emotional teaching behavior—and depressive symptoms. In this study, an association of teacher support on students&#39; later depressive symptoms but not of students&#39; depressive symptoms on later teacher support was found. However, findings from cross-sectional studies support students&#39; mental health outcomes might predict teacher variables. For example, students&#39; inattentiveness (Tournaki &amp;amp; Podell, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref46&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]), distractibility (Jennings &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref47&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]), and significant stress (Turner et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref48&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]) have been found to predict teachers&#39; self-efficacy (Jennings &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref49&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Tournaki &amp;amp; Podell, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref50&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]), disciplinary tactics (Jennings &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref51&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]), emotional well-being (Jennings &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref52&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Sutton &amp;amp; Wheatley, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref53&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;]), and teacher-student relationships (Jennings &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref54&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Though these studies do not directly measure affectivity or depressive symptoms, depressed students may appear disengaged, fatigued, inattentive, and distractible, based on depressive symptoms including anhedonia, loss of energy, and difficulty concentrating (American Psychiatric Association, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref55&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Consequently, these students may demonstrate lower grades, decreased homework completion, or a decline in attendance (Humensky et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref56&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Teachers commonly respond to deficiencies in student engagement and motivation by lowering expectations (Tournaki &amp;amp; Podell, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref57&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]) thereby demonstrating a lack of instructional and socio-emotional teaching behavior. In other words, it is possible that students&#39; affect has the potential to impact teachers&#39; classroom practices through their classroom performance.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;At the same time, students&#39; negative affect may also elicit teachers to show more instructional and socio-emotional teaching behavior (Sutton &amp;amp; Wheatley, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref58&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Turner et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref59&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Previous literature has shown that students&#39; significant stress, like unstable home lives, can result in students&#39; negative affect and be one of teachers&#39; greatest sources of guilt (Sutton &amp;amp; Wheatley, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref60&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Many teachers cope with guilt by offering increased encouragement (instructional teaching behavior) or providing additional support, like one-on-one time (socio-emotional teaching behavior; Turner et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref61&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Similarly, students&#39; negative affect may motivate teachers to show more organizational teaching behavior as well (Humensky et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref62&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Turner et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref63&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]). For instance, high levels of negative affect can influence students by lowering their self-esteem, thereby leading these students to fixate on and become distracted by their own errors and directing time away from learning new material (Humensky et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref64&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Turner et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref65&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]). When students with affective levels characteristic of depressive symptomatology appear distracted, teachers may respond by creating more rules to participate or by enforcing expectations (organizational teaching behavior; Turner et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref66&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Summarized, there is some empirical support that students&#39; mental health outcomes, such as inattention, distractibility, and stress, serve as predictors of teacher related variables such as self-efficacy (Tournaki &amp;amp; Podell, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref67&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]), classroom disciplinary tactics (Jennings &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref68&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]), teacher emotional well-being (Sutton &amp;amp; Wheatley, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref69&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;]), and teacher-student relationships (Jennings &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref70&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]). More specifically, students&#39; negative affect may predict instructional, organizational, and socio-emotional teaching behavior (Humensky et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref71&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Sutton &amp;amp; Wheatley, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref72&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Turner et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref73&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]). However, as far as we know, only one longitudinal study with middle school students exists, and it does not support students&#39; depressive symptoms as a predictor of student-reported teacher support (Reddy et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib31&quot; id=&quot;ref74&quot;&gt;31&lt;/reflink&gt;]). While we are not aware of studies examining the temporal directionality of the associations between negative teaching behavior and students&#39; affect, there is reason to believe that this association would be bidirectional, given the relations between students&#39; affect and other teaching behaviors. Additionally, there are no studies examining the possible effects of students&#39; positive affect on teaching behavior, but it is unreasonable to assume positive affect is fundamentally different from negative affect regarding the associations between students&#39; affect and teaching behavior. Consequently, we would expect bidirectional relationships between each type of teaching behavior and students&#39; positive affect and negative affect.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-9&quot;&gt;Parenting Behaviors and Affect&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;In addition to teaching behavior, parenting behavior also plays an instrumental role in middle school students&#39; development (Johnson &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref75&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;]). In considering the definition of social constructivism as beliefs about the world and self as shaped via social and cultural factors (Vygotsky, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref76&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref77&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]), it is no surprise that parenting behavior and mental health outcomes have also been linked (Johnson &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref78&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Pinquart, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref79&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Pinquart &amp;amp; Kauser, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib23&quot; id=&quot;ref80&quot;&gt;23&lt;/reflink&gt;]). In particular, research has connected corporal punishment with increased negative affect, poor monitoring and supervision with low positive affect, and parental involvement and positive parenting with increased positive affect (Davidov &amp;amp; Grusec, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref81&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Johnson &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref82&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;]). As parenting behavior and adolescents&#39; affect are associated (Davidov &amp;amp; Grusec, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref83&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Johnson &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref84&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;]), it is crucial to take parenting behavior into account when evaluating the relation between teaching behavior and students&#39; affect.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-10&quot;&gt;Purpose of the Present Study&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Although there is a theoretical basis from Vygotsky&#39;s ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref85&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref86&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]) social constructivism (Furman et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib13&quot; id=&quot;ref87&quot;&gt;13&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Slavich &amp;amp; Zimbardo, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref88&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;]) and empirical literature to support relations between student-reported teaching behavior and two variables - affect in high school students (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref89&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]) and depressive symptoms in middle school students (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref90&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]) - two significant gaps remain. First, research on the association between teaching behavior and affect in middle school students is missing, which would allow us to draw more precise conclusions about depressive symptoms as positive and negative affect are part of the RDoC for depression (Woody &amp;amp; Gibb, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib40&quot; id=&quot;ref91&quot;&gt;40&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Second, as previous research on teaching behavior and students&#39; affect and depressive symptoms has largely been cross-sectional (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref92&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]; P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref93&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]), the temporal directionality of the association between teaching behavior and affect is unclear. Thus, the purpose of our present study is to use longitudinal data to examine whether there are associations between the four types of teaching behavior and positive affect and negative affect and vice versa.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Based on social constructivism (Vygotsky, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref94&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref95&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]), the tripartite model (Clark &amp;amp; Watson, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref96&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;]), Pittard et al., ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref97&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]) findings, we predict that student-reported instructional teaching behavior is related with later higher positive affect and lower negative affect. Further, we hypothesize that we will replicate previous research that has shown relations between negative teaching behavior and later lower positive affect and higher negative affect (Somersalo et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib34&quot; id=&quot;ref98&quot;&gt;34&lt;/reflink&gt;]). There is a lack of data regarding organizational teaching behavior and affect; however, what little literature exists points toward a positive relation between organizational teaching behavior and depressive symptoms (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref99&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Vygotsky, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref100&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref101&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Based on Vygotsky&#39;s ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref102&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref103&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]) social constructivism and Clark and Watson&#39;s ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref104&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;]) tripartite model, we propose a positive relation between student-reported organizational teaching behavior and later negative affect and a negative relation between student-reported organizational teaching behavior and later positive affect. Finally, in considering prior literature (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref105&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]; P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref106&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Vygotsky, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref107&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref108&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]), it is likely that there is a positive relation between student-reported socio-emotional teaching behavior and both later positive affect and negative affect.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;As previously stated, research indicates that students&#39; negative affect may negatively predict instructional, organizational, and socio-emotional teaching behavior (Humensky et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref109&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Sutton &amp;amp; Wheatley, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref110&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Turner et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref111&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]). We predict that these patterns will emerge in our data. Additionally, although there is no research that we are aware of regarding negative teaching behavior and affect nor regarding the individual types of teaching behavior and students&#39; positive affect, we hypothesize that there will be additional bidirectional relations.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-11&quot;&gt;Methods&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-12&quot;&gt;Participants&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;We recruited middle school students from five schools located in three school districts in the Southern United States. Two of the participating middle schools were private Catholic/parochial schools and three were public institutions. Both Catholic/parochial schools and two of the public schools were in an urban area while one public school was in a rural area. Of the 707 students in grades 6 to 8 that were invited to participate by their homeroom teachers, 335 received parent permission to participate (participation rate: 47.38%). No incentives for participation were given and there were no exclusion criteria. Of the participants, 35.7% were in 6th grade, 25.4% in 7th grade, and 38.9% in 8th grade (mean age: 12.59 years, &lt;emph&gt;SD&lt;/emph&gt; = 1.01 at wave 1). Of the participating students, 52.6% identified as male and 47.4% as female. Further, 75.9% reported identifying as White/European American, 11.2% Black/African American, 2.3% Latina/o, 2% Asian/Pacific Islander, 0.9% Native American/Alaska Native, and 7.7% other race/ethnicity.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-13&quot;&gt;Procedure&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;After approval from the Institutional Review Board of the university and school districts, all middle school principals in the selected school districts were invited to participate via email. We worked with principals that expressed interest in participating to coordinate parental consent and scheduling of the data collection. Parental consent forms were sent to students 2–3 weeks before data collection began. Only students whose parents returned a consent form with permission to participate were permitted to complete the questionnaire. On two occasions, students filled out the questionnaires during regular class time in groups, with wave 2 data collection occurring between 5 and 12 weeks after wave 1 data collection (mean: 8.2 weeks). The data were collected by the researchers who were available to answer students&#39; questions. The data collection was completed before the COVID-19 epidemic.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-14&quot;&gt;Instruments&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-15&quot;&gt;Teaching Behavior Questionnaire (TBQ)&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The TBQ (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref112&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]) measures types of student-reported teaching behaviors. P&#246;ssel et al. ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref113&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found that a four-factor structure was the best fit, with the four types of teaching behavior labeled &lt;emph&gt;Instructional&lt;/emph&gt; (13 items; e.g. &quot;My teacher uses examples that I understand&quot;), &lt;emph&gt;Negative&lt;/emph&gt; (9 items; e.g. &quot;My teacher&#39;s mood changes quickly&quot;), &lt;emph&gt;Organizational&lt;/emph&gt; (5 items; e.g. &quot;My teacher does not let me use equipment if I use it improperly or dangerously&quot;), and &lt;emph&gt;Socio-Emotional&lt;/emph&gt; (10 items; e.g. &quot;My teacher talks with me about my interests&quot;). Students report teaching behavior based on the frequency of each behavior on a four-point scale (1 = &lt;emph&gt;never&lt;/emph&gt; to 4 = &lt;emph&gt;always&lt;/emph&gt;). Each scale is individually averaged to produce a TBQ score for each behavior. Low scores on a scale indicate lower frequency of the behavior while high scores indicate higher frequency. Consistent with Bandura&#39;s ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib3&quot; id=&quot;ref114&quot;&gt;3&lt;/reflink&gt;]) social cognitive theory, previous empirical literature demonstrates that teachers who are perceived by students as most similar to themselves are particularly influential in regard to students&#39; future depressive symptoms (P&#246;ssel &amp;amp; Smith, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib25&quot; id=&quot;ref115&quot;&gt;25&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Thus, at wave 1, students completed the TBQ in relation to a teacher whom they currently had and whom they viewed as most similar to themselves. They were asked to report the initials of this teacher on their questionnaire. At wave 2, students were asked to complete the TBQ in relation to the teacher they chose at wave 1. Previous literature found Cronbach&#39;s alphas of 0.75, 0.69, 0.59, and 0.88 for the TBQ scales Instructional, Negative, Organizational, and Socio-Emotional TB (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref116&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]), respectively. For internal consistencies in the current study, see Table 1.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 1 Descriptives and internal consistencies of TBQ, APQ, and PANAS at each measured wave&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table frame=&quot;hsides&quot; rules=&quot;groups&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;M&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;SD&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Cronbach&#39;s &amp;amp;#945;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;95% CI (Barnette, &amp;lt;xref ref-type=&quot;bibr&quot; rid=&quot;bibr5&quot;&amp;gt;2005&amp;lt;/xref&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Upper Lower&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Wave 1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; TBQ &amp;amp;#8211; Instructional&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;41.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.79&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.77&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.73 0.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; TBQ &amp;amp;#8211; Negative&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;16.18&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.74&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.75&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.71 0.79&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; TBQ - Organizational&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;15.34&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.11&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.76&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.72 0.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; TBQ - Socio-emotional&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;26.43&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;6.25&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.76&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.72 0.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; APQ - Parent Involvement&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;35.30&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.70&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.76&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.72 0.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; APQ - Positive Parenting&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;21.63&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.14&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.79&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.75 0.82&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; APQ - Poor Monitoring/Supervision&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;19.68&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;6.15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.74&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.70 0.78&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; APQ - Inconsistent Punishment&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;13.82&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.97&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.74&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.70 0.78&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; APQ - Corporal Punishment&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.28&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.85&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.82 0.88&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; PANAS - Positive&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;50.06&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;12.42&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.76&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.72 0.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; PANAS - Negative&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;27.65&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;10.50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.77&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.73 0.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Wave 2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; TBQ - Instructional&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;41.79&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.91&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.77&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.73 0.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; TBQ - Negative&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;16.43&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.79&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.75&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.71 0.79&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; TBQ - Organizational&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;15.42&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.78&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.74 0.82&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; TBQ - Socio-emotional&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;27.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;6.31&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.76&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.72 0.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; PANAS - Positive&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;51.35&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;12.48&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.76&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.72 0.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; PANAS - Negative&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;27.44&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;10.21&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.75&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.71 0.79&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;emph&gt;Note&lt;/emph&gt;. TBQ = Teaching Behavior Questionnaire, APQ = Alabama Parenting Questionnaire, PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Scale&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-16&quot;&gt;Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PANAS-C)&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The PANAS-C (Laurent et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib20&quot; id=&quot;ref117&quot;&gt;20&lt;/reflink&gt;]) measures positive affect and negative affect in students during the past few weeks. Laurent and his colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib20&quot; id=&quot;ref118&quot;&gt;20&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found a two-factor structure for the PANAS-C, including &lt;emph&gt;Positive Affect&lt;/emph&gt; (15 items; e.g., &quot;happy,&quot; &quot;cheerful,&quot; and &quot;proud&quot;) and &lt;emph&gt;Negative Affect&lt;/emph&gt; (15 items, e.g., &quot;frightened,&quot; &quot;sad,&quot; and &quot;miserable&quot;). The students indicate self-reported responses on a five-point scale (1 = &lt;emph&gt;very slightly or not at all&lt;/emph&gt; to 5 = &lt;emph&gt;extremely&lt;/emph&gt;). Each scale is summed to represent a score for positive affect and a score for negative affect. Previous literature found Cronbach&#39;s alphas of 0.75 and 0.69, for the Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales of the PANAS-C, respectively (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref119&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). For internal consistencies in the current study, see Table 1.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-17&quot;&gt;Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ)&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The APQ (Frick, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib11&quot; id=&quot;ref120&quot;&gt;11&lt;/reflink&gt;]) measures child-reported parenting behavior and was administered to control for the influence of parenting behavior on students&#39; affect. The APQ is composed of five scales, as per Frick&#39;s ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib11&quot; id=&quot;ref121&quot;&gt;11&lt;/reflink&gt;]) finding of a five-factor structure: &lt;emph&gt;Corporal Punishment&lt;/emph&gt; (3 items; e.g. &quot;Your parent hits you with a belt, switch, or other object as a punishment&quot;), &lt;emph&gt;Inconsistent Discipline&lt;/emph&gt; (6 items; e.g. &quot;Your parent threatens to punish you and then does not do it&quot;), &lt;emph&gt;Parent Involvement&lt;/emph&gt; (10 items; e.g. &quot;You have a friendly talk with your parent&quot;), &lt;emph&gt;Poor Monitoring/Supervision&lt;/emph&gt; (10 items; e.g. &quot;You are at home without an adult being with you&quot;), and &lt;emph&gt;Positive Parenting&lt;/emph&gt; (6 items; e.g. &quot;Your parent tells you that you are doing a good job&quot;). The APQ contains seven additional items that measure disciplinary strategies aside from corporal punishment, but those items were not included in the analyses. The purpose of those items is to prevent corporal punishment from being asked in isolation as this might cause an implicit bias towards the corporal punishment items (Frick et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib12&quot; id=&quot;ref122&quot;&gt;12&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Students based their responses on the adult that they spend the most time with (e.g. (foster or step)mom, (foster or step)dad, grandmother, grandfather, or other caretaker) and were rated on a five-point scale (1 = &lt;emph&gt;never&lt;/emph&gt; to 5 = &lt;emph&gt;always&lt;/emph&gt;). As the instrument measures both positive and negative parenting behavior, individual APQ scales are scored by summing the items in each scale, rather than rely on a total score. Previous literature found Cronbach&#39;s alphas of.52, 0.61, 0.82, 0.43, and.85 for the APQ scales Corporal Punishment, Inconsistent Discipline, Parent Involvement, Poor Monitoring/Supervision, and Positive Parenting (Frick et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib12&quot; id=&quot;ref123&quot;&gt;12&lt;/reflink&gt;]), respectively. For internal consistencies in the current study, see Table 1.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-18&quot;&gt;Statistical Analyses&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Participating students selected 72 different teachers they currently had and whom they viewed as most similar to themselves. On average, a teacher was selected by 21.07 students (standard deviation: 19.55) with a range from 1 to 25 students. To test for the proposed bidirectional associations between student-reported teaching behavior and students&#39; positive affect and negative affect, multiple two-level hierarchical linear model (HLM) analyses with students nested in teachers were calculated using HLM version 7 (Raudenbush et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib30&quot; id=&quot;ref124&quot;&gt;30&lt;/reflink&gt;]). In two of these analyses, wave 1 scores of all four TBQ scales and all five APQ scales were simultaneously entered as predictors of the wave 2 PANAS-C Positive and Negative Affect scores with students nested in teachers. These analyses were calculated to examine associations of teaching behavior on wave 2 students&#39; positive affect and negative affect after controlling for the effect of wave 1 parenting behavior. In four analyses, wave 1 scores for the PANAS-C Positive and Negative Affect scales and the five APQ scales were simultaneously entered as predictors of the four wave 2 TBQ scale scores with students nested in teachers. These analyses were calculated to examine the associations of students&#39; affect at wave 1 on student-reported teaching behavior at wave 2. Wave 1 values of the dependent variables were not controlled for in any of these analyses as doing so can result in inflated standard errors, potentially rendering the findings invalid or unstable (Glymour et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib14&quot; id=&quot;ref125&quot;&gt;14&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Keogh et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib18&quot; id=&quot;ref126&quot;&gt;18&lt;/reflink&gt;]). This is particularly the case when independent variables impact the dependent variables already before wave 1 data collection, as it is the case in most observational studies, including our current study (Glymour et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib14&quot; id=&quot;ref127&quot;&gt;14&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Keogh et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib18&quot; id=&quot;ref128&quot;&gt;18&lt;/reflink&gt;]). The HLM regression equations of all six analyses are presented in Online Supplement A.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-19&quot;&gt;Results&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Descriptive data and internal consistencies of all scales at both waves are presented in Table 1. The correlations between all scales at wave 1, wave 2, and between waves 1 and 2 are presented in Table 2. As in previous studies, all TBQ scales but the Negative Teaching Behavior scale are positively correlated with each other while the Negative Teaching Behavior scale is either negatively correlated or uncorrelated with the other TBQ scales. Most correlations between the PANAS-C Positive Affect scale and the TBQ and APQ were not significant. The PANAS-C Negative Affect scale was consistently, significantly correlated with all APQ scales but not with the TBQ Organizational and Socio-Emotional Teaching Behavior scales. Finally, the correlations between the PANAS-C Negative Affect scale and the TBQ Instructional and Negative Teaching Behavior scales were less consistent.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 2 Correlations for TBQ, APQ, and PANAS at both waves&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table frame=&quot;hsides&quot; rules=&quot;groups&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Inw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;New1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Orw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Sow1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;PIw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;PPw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;PMw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;IPw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;CPw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;PAw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;NAw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Inw2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;New2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Orw2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Sow2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;PAw2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;NAw2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Inw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;New1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.39&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Orw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.45&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Sow1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.56&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.40&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;PIw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.17&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.17&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.18&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;PPw1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.18&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.18&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 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0.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.14&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.53&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Sow2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.46&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.27&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.60&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.16&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.21&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.08&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.22&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.65&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.16&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.42&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;PAw2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.11&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.14&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.35&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.23&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.68&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.24&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.23&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.29&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;NAw2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.09&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.17&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.09&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.11&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.14&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.19&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.21&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.62&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.06&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.18&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;emph&gt;Note&lt;/emph&gt;. Ins = Instructional Teaching Behavior, Neg = Negative Teaching Behavior, Org = Organizational Teaching Behavior, Soc = Socio-emotional Teaching Behavior, PI = Parent Involvement, PP = Positive Parenting, PM = Poor Monitoring/Supervision, IP = Inconsistent Punishment, CP = Corporal Punishment, PA = Positive Affect, NA = Negative Affect, w1 = wave 1, w2 = wave 2 rs &amp;gt; 0.11, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.05; rs &amp;gt; 0.14, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.01&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Results of the two regressions of the wave 1 TBQ scale scores on the wave 2 PANAS-C Positive and Negative Affect scale scores after controlling for the wave 1APQ scale scores can be seen in Table 3. As predicted, our results showed that the TBQ Negative (&lt;emph&gt;p &amp;lt;&lt;/emph&gt;.01) and Socio-Emotional (&lt;emph&gt;p &amp;lt;&lt;/emph&gt;.05) Teaching Behavior scales at wave 1 were positively associated with the PANAS-C Negative Affect scores at wave 2. However, contrary to our hypotheses, none of the TBQ scales at wave 1 were significantly associated with the PANAS-C Positive Affect scores at wave 2.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 3 Estimated fixed effects of the TBQ scales at wave 1 on the PANAS-C scale negative and positive affect at wave 2 when controlled for parenting behavior at wave 1&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table frame=&quot;hsides&quot; rules=&quot;groups&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Fixed effect&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Negative affect model&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Positive affect model&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Unstandardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Standardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Unstandardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Standardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;00&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;26.85**&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.57&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;51.07**&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.87&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Instructional TB (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;10&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Negative TB (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;20&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.15**&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.18&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.30&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.18&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.11&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Organizational TB (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;40&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.25&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.34&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Socio-Emotional TB (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;30&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.27*&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.17&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.16&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Parenting Involvement (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;50&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.20&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.90**&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.56&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Positive Parenting (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;60&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.20&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.26&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.29&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.11&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Poor Monitoring and Supervision (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;70&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.08&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.18&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Inconsistent Punishment (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;80&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.20&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.17&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.21&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Corporal Punishment (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;90&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.47*&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.42&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-1.15**&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.40&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.20&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;emph&gt;Note&lt;/emph&gt;. TB = Teaching Behavior, ** &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.001. * &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.05&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Results of the four regressions of the wave 1 PANAS-C Positive and Negative Affect scale scores on the wave 2 TBQ scale scores can be seen in Table 4. As predicted, our results showed that the wave 1 PANAS-C Negative Affect scale scores were negatively associated with the wave 2 TBQ Instructional scale (&lt;emph&gt;p &amp;lt;&lt;/emph&gt;.01). Unexpectedly, the wave 1 PANAS-C Negative Affect scale scores were positively associated with the wave 2 Socio-Emotional Teaching Behavior scales (&lt;emph&gt;p &amp;lt;&lt;/emph&gt;.01). Also contrary to our hypotheses, wave 1 PANAS-C Positive Affect scores were not significantly associated with any of the wave 2 TBQ scales.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 4 Estimated fixed effects of the PANAS-C scale negative and positive affect at wave 1 on the TBQ scales at wave 2&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table frame=&quot;hsides&quot; rules=&quot;groups&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Fixed effect&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Instructional TB model&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Negative TB model&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Unstandardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Standardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Unstandardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Standardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;00&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;41.51**&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.77&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;16.20**&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.24&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Negative Affect (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;10&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.13*&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.17&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.11&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Positive Affect (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;20&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.09&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.14&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table frame=&quot;hsides&quot; rules=&quot;groups&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Fixed effect&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Organizational TB model&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Socio-Emotional TB model&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Unstandardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Standardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Unstandardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Standardized parameter estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;00&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;15.31**&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.20&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;26.38**&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.49&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Negative Affect (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;10&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;-0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.07*&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Positive Affect (&amp;amp;#947;&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;20&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;emph&gt;Note&lt;/emph&gt;. TB = Teaching Behavior, ** &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.001. * &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.05&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-20&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Based on social constructivism (Vygotsky, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref129&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref130&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]) and empirical literature (Clark &amp;amp; Watson, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref131&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Humensky et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref132&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref133&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]; P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref134&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Reddy et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib31&quot; id=&quot;ref135&quot;&gt;31&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Somersalo et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib34&quot; id=&quot;ref136&quot;&gt;34&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Tournaki &amp;amp; Podell, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref137&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Turner et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref138&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]) we deem our following findings as particularly important: (a) there were no associations between student-reported teaching behavior and positive affect, (b) student-reported negative teaching behavior was positively associated with students&#39; later negative affect, (c) students&#39; negative affect was negatively associated with later student-reported instructional teaching behavior, and (d) student-reported socio-emotional teaching behavior and negative affect were positively and bidirectionally associated.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;As mentioned above, while there were multiple associations between negative affect and different types of teaching behavior, there were no significant associations between any type of student-reported teaching behavior and positive affect, no matter the temporal direction of the associations. While not as we predicted, this pattern of findings is not without precedent. In fact, the same pattern was found in elementary school students but only when controlling for parenting behavior (Barnard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref139&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]). The authors of that study interpreted that the behavior of teachers and parents accounted for unique variance of negative affect while they account for the same variance of positive affect. If this interpretation is correct, though teachers and parents cannot compensate for a potentially negative influence of one group of adults on students&#39; negative affect, they may be able to compensate for the influence of one group of adults on students&#39; positive affect. Considering this important implication, future research might want to test Barnard et al.&#39;s ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref140&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]) hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Further, student-reported negative teaching behavior is positively associated with middle school students&#39; later negative affect. Again, negative teaching behavior is not a measure of occasional negative teaching behavior, but specific to teachers who students view as consistently having a negative teaching pattern. Vygotsky ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref141&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref142&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]) proposes that the role of any major adult figure is vital because adolescents often mirror their observed affective states, meaning that the rapid shift between positive affect and negative affect is magnified when faced with equally labile teaching behavior (i.e., inconsistent, moody; Furman et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib13&quot; id=&quot;ref143&quot;&gt;13&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Adolescents demonstrate the same pattern when exposed to parenting behavior reminiscent of negative teaching behavior such as inconsistent discipline (Frick, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib11&quot; id=&quot;ref144&quot;&gt;11&lt;/reflink&gt;]), which measures punitive behavior and inconsistency in addition to how both can be predicated by parental moodiness (Frick, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib11&quot; id=&quot;ref145&quot;&gt;11&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Thus, the idea that the impact of teaching behavior on middle school students&#39; affect mirrors the impact of parenting behavior on students&#39; affect might explain this finding.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Another important finding is that student-reported socio-emotional teaching behavior and negative affect are positively and bidirectionally associated. We propose that an increase in negative affect from wave 1 to wave 2 might trigger teachers to increase their socio-emotional teaching behavior, perhaps in an effort to support students&#39; well-being. While not directly tested in our models, this might explain our finding that negative affect is positively associated with later student-reported socio-emotional teaching behavior. Consistent with P&#246;ssel et al. ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref146&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]) interpretation of their own finding that emotional teacher support is positively associated with depressive symptoms in high school students who report few stressful events, it is possible that student-reported socio-emotional teaching behavior might have iatrogenic effects. In other words, teachers who provide emotional support to students who report a moderate to high number of stressful events may benefit, while those who report fewer stressful events suffer unintended consequences. Interestingly, this finding has been similarly replicated in adolescent depression prevention programs (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib26&quot; id=&quot;ref147&quot;&gt;26&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref148&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref149&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Thus, it is possible that student-reported socio-emotional teaching behavior is associated with an increase in negative affect as a teacher demonstrating a high level of socio-emotional teaching behavior might make students wonder if something is wrong with them thereby triggering increased negative affect. However, student-reported socio-emotional teaching behavior describes the efforts made by teachers to know their students on a personal level, by being accepting of diverse backgrounds and thoughts, harboring feelings of belongingness, and providing warmth (Allen et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref150&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Further, the TBQ measures strategies like discussions of students&#39; interests that take place outside of the classroom (e.g., &quot;My teacher talks with me about my interests&quot;). Thus, one might wonder how such teaching behavior might have such potentially negative consequences. For this reason, these patterns call for further exploration.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Finally, we found middle school students&#39; negative affect to be negatively associated with later student-reported instructional teaching behavior. Two explanations appear likely. First, instructional teaching behavior requires students to thoroughly comprehend (e.g., &quot;My teacher makes sure I understand the material before moving to something new&quot;), critically think (e.g., &quot;My teacher answers my questions in a way that I understand&quot;), and actively participate (e.g., My teacher pays attention to me when I state my opinion&quot;). This requires a certain level of attentiveness and engagement. Thus, this relationship could be explained by examining specific depressive symptoms like difficulty concentrating and loss of energy. Since teachers convey the content of their subject in a very limited amount of time, they must move on to another topic for the sake of the class, even if not all students have understood the previously taught content (Lohman, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib21&quot; id=&quot;ref151&quot;&gt;21&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Thus, lack of participation due to concentration problems or loss of energy could lead teachers to provide less instructional teaching behavior to disengaged students. As elevated levels of negative affect is part of how we conceptualized and measured depressive symptomatology (Clark &amp;amp; Watson, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref152&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;]), it would make sense that middle school students&#39; negative affect triggers teachers to show less instructional teaching behavior towards them. An alternative explanation for the negative association between middle school students&#39; negative affect and later student-reported instructional teaching behavior might be that students&#39; lack of attentiveness, concentration, and engagement might lead them to notice and therefore report less instructional teaching behavior.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Vygotsky&#39;s ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref153&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref154&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]) social constructivism helps to explain our findings. It is evident that teachers scaffold middle school students beyond academic outcomes (Slavich &amp;amp; Zimbardo, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref155&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;]). For example, negative teaching behavior (e.g., inconsistency, moodiness) may lead students to perceive their teacher-student relationship more negatively—a social constructivist&#39;s proposed mechanism of psychopathology—thereby contributing to negative emotional responses (Furman et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib13&quot; id=&quot;ref156&quot;&gt;13&lt;/reflink&gt;]). While previous research shows that instructional teaching behavior may have a positive impact on academic outcomes (Slavich &amp;amp; Zimbardo, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref157&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;]), our findings do not support student-reported instructional teaching behavior as a predictor of students&#39; affect. Likewise, student-reported organizational teaching behavior (e.g., displaying rules and consequences of disobeying the rules) was unrelated to affect in our study, which defied our original hypothesis based on the role that a structured environment plays on emotional outcomes following social constructivism (Furman et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib13&quot; id=&quot;ref158&quot;&gt;13&lt;/reflink&gt;]). This appears consistent with the premise that social constructivism relies mainly on the &lt;emph&gt;social&lt;/emph&gt; component—the relationship itself—which organizational teaching behavior does not emphasize. However, it also highlights the need for further investigation regarding the extent to which environment plays a role in social constructivism&#39;s theorization of psychopathology.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-21&quot;&gt;Strengths and Limitations&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Considering the impact that parenting behavior plays on youths&#39; lives (Johnson &amp;amp; Greenberg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref159&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;]), one strength of the current study is that we controlled for student-reported parenting behavior when examining the associations between student-reported teaching behaviors and affect in middle school students. Likewise, future studies may want to control for other relevant factors that impact middle school students&#39; affect, such as peer relationships (P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref160&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Since there is limited research concerning teaching behavior in this age group, another strength of our study is the focus on middle school students. Further, our study was the first designed to test the directionality between all four student-reported teaching behaviors and students&#39; affect. As one study cannot fill all gaps, there is still a need for studies utilizing a similar longitudinal design in elementary and high school students. Although the longitudinal design of our study is a strength, we cannot draw causal conclusions as this is not an experimental or quasi-experimental design. A last strength of our study is that we recruited students from private Catholic/parochial as well as public schools in different school districts located in urban and rural areas. However, the numbers of schools, school types, school districts, and areas were too low to include as nesting variables. This can be seen as a second limitation as it is possible that there are differences across those variables which could have impacted the findings. Therefore, authors of future studies should include students from more schools and school districts.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Another limitation of our study was the sole use of student-report. Students&#39; affect may influence their perceptions of teachers&#39; behavior, which may cause the associations to be inflated. To avoid a possible overestimation of the associations in the future, it would be beneficial to follow the model of P&#246;ssel et al. ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref161&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]) who include teacher-report and external observers to measure teaching behavior. Yet, it is important to note that while the inclusion of both sources might be beneficial, student-report is the best predictor for student outcomes. Further, external observers are likely to miss less common (i.e., negative) teaching behavior as well as behavior that takes place partially outside of the classroom and/or instructional time (i.e., socio-emotional; P&#246;ssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref162&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Perhaps, another limitation of our study is that we did not control for wave 1 values of the dependent variables. This may raise the question: how much of our findings are driven by students reporting the same affect or teaching behavior at both waves? However, we decided not to control for the wave 1 values of the dependent variables as doing so can result in inflated standard errors, potentially rendering the findings invalid or unstable (Glymour et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib14&quot; id=&quot;ref163&quot;&gt;14&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Keogh et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib18&quot; id=&quot;ref164&quot;&gt;18&lt;/reflink&gt;]). This is particularly the case when the independent variables impact the dependent variables already before wave 1 data collection. This is the case in most observational studies (Glymour et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib14&quot; id=&quot;ref165&quot;&gt;14&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Keogh et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib18&quot; id=&quot;ref166&quot;&gt;18&lt;/reflink&gt;]), particularly when examining student-reported teaching behavior as wave 1 assessment cannot take place before students gaine at least some experience with their teachers. Thus, this potential limitation is inherent in using student-reported teaching behavior.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Finally, while male and female students were approximately equally represented, three-fourths of participants identified as White/European American while the remaining fourth represented a diverse group of other races and ethnicities. Though the sample is representative of the region in the U.S. where the data were collected and a previous study found no evidence that race and ethnicity of students is associated with the relationships between student-reported teaching behavior and students&#39; affect (Cauley et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib6&quot; id=&quot;ref167&quot;&gt;6&lt;/reflink&gt;]), the generalizability of the findings to those other than White/European American students is limited. Thus, it is recommended to include a more racially and ethnically diverse sample in future studies.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-22&quot;&gt;Conclusions&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Prior to the current study, our knowledge about the temporal directionality of the relationships between teaching behaviors and students&#39; affect in middle school students has been limited. Therefore, the purpose of our two-wave longitudinal study was to contribute to filling this gap in our knowledge. Our findings suggest that (a) none of the teaching behaviors and middle school students&#39; positive affect are related, (b) negative teaching behavior is positively related to students&#39; later negative affect, (c) students&#39; negative affect is negatively related to later instructional teaching behavior, and (d) socio-emotional teaching behavior and negative affect are positively and bidirectionally related. These findings contribute to our understanding of which teaching behaviors impact middle school students&#39; affect and, following the tripartite model, depressive symptoms (Clark &amp;amp; Watson, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref168&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Beyond that, our findings also provide evidence that middle school students&#39; affect can impact the behavior of their teachers, an area of study that has received limited attention. Of particular importance seems to be the bidirectional relationship between socio-emotional teaching behavior and negative affect, which suggests that this association may worsen the emotional state of (some) students.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;If replicated in experimental or quasi-experimental studies with more ethnically and racially diverse groups of students, our findings may have some relevance for teacher training and maybe even the prevention of students&#39; negative affect and depressive symptoms. For example, teacher training could focus on negative teaching behavior as it was found to be related to negative affect and depression in multiple studies including our own (Pittard et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref169&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Pӧssel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref170&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Relatedly, school-based mental health professionals might want to consider help teachers to consciously use their behavior to reduce students&#39; negative affect.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-23&quot;&gt;Author Contributions&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Both authors have reviewed this manuscript and contributed in a meaningful way. Material preparation and data collection were performed by first author. The analyses were performed by second author. The first draft of the manuscript was written by second author, and both authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-24&quot;&gt;Funding&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-25&quot;&gt;Data Availability&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The dataset used in this study is available by emailing the corresponding author.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-26&quot;&gt;Declarations&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-27&quot;&gt;Ethics Approval&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Approval was obtained from the ethics committee of the University of BLINDED. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-28&quot;&gt;Consent to Participate&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;All legal guardians gave informed consent and students gave their assent before participating.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-29&quot;&gt;Competing Interests&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The authors have no conflicts of interest or acknowledgments to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-30&quot;&gt;Electronic supplementary material&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Graph: Supplementary Material 1&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0185155349-31&quot;&gt;Publisher&#39;s Note&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;ref id=&quot;AN0185155349-32&quot;&gt; &lt;title&gt; References &lt;/title&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib1&quot; idref=&quot;ref22&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;1&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Allen J, Gregory A, Mikami A, Lun J, Hamre B, Pianta R. 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  Data: The Middle School Blues: Temporal Directionality between Teaching Behavior and Students&#39; Affect
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  Label: Language
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  Data: English
– Name: Author
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Patrick+P&#246;ssel%22&quot;&gt;Patrick P&#246;ssel&lt;/searchLink&gt; (ORCID &lt;externalLink term=&quot;http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5851-4253&quot;&gt;0000-0002-5851-4253&lt;/externalLink&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Shelby+M%2E+Burton%22&quot;&gt;Shelby M. Burton&lt;/searchLink&gt;
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;SO&quot; term=&quot;%22Child+%26+Youth+Care+Forum%22&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Child &amp; Youth Care Forum&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/searchLink&gt;. 2025 54(3):571-588.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 18
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
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  Data: Journal Articles&lt;br /&gt;Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;EL&quot; term=&quot;%22Junior+High+Schools%22&quot;&gt;Junior High Schools&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;EL&quot; term=&quot;%22Middle+Schools%22&quot;&gt;Middle Schools&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;EL&quot; term=&quot;%22Secondary+Education%22&quot;&gt;Secondary Education&lt;/searchLink&gt;
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Middle+School+Teachers%22&quot;&gt;Middle School Teachers&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Middle+School+Students%22&quot;&gt;Middle School Students&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Teacher+Student+Relationship%22&quot;&gt;Teacher Student Relationship&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Teacher+Behavior%22&quot;&gt;Teacher Behavior&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Mental+Health%22&quot;&gt;Mental Health&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Teacher+Influence%22&quot;&gt;Teacher Influence&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Outcomes+of+Education%22&quot;&gt;Outcomes of Education&lt;/searchLink&gt;
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10566-024-09829-1
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  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1053-1890&lt;br /&gt;1573-3319
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: Research clearly points toward a relationship between teaching behavior and students&#39; affect. The relations between teaching behavior and middle school students&#39; mental health, in the form of positive and negative affect, are particularly important to understanding how school-based clinicians can provide support for teachers and students alike. However, studies examining the relationship between teaching behavior and students&#39; positive and negative affect are largely cross-sectional and focus on high school students. Objective: Our objective was to determine the temporal directionality between instructional, negative, organizational, and socio-emotional teaching behavior and affect in middle school students. Methods: At two time points, 335 students in grades 6 to 8 (mean age: 12.59; SD = 1.01; 47.4% female) filled out the Teaching Behavior Questionnaire and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale. Results: Our two-level hierarchical linear model analyses revealed no significant associations between teaching behavior and positive affect (ps &gt; 0.05). However, socio-emotional teaching behavior and negative affect were positively and bidirectionally associated (ps &lt; 0.01). Further, negative teaching behavior (p &lt; 0.01) was positively associated with later negative affect and negative affect was negatively associated with later instructional teaching behavior (p &lt; 0.01). Conclusions: Our findings highlight the differences in the existence and temporal directionality of associations between the different types of teaching behavior and students&#39; positive and negative affect. In particular, different types of teaching behavior are only associated with students&#39; negative but not positive affect. Experimental studies with students from more diverse ethnical and racial background are needed.
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
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  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1471114
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      Pagination:
        PageCount: 18
        StartPage: 571
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Middle School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Middle School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Student Relationship
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Behavior
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      – TitleFull: The Middle School Blues: Temporal Directionality between Teaching Behavior and Students' Affect
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