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Minerals and Rocks in Portuguese Secondary Education (1890s-1970s): A Historical Overview through a Collection Supplied by the Geological Survey of Portugal

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Title: Minerals and Rocks in Portuguese Secondary Education (1890s-1970s): A Historical Overview through a Collection Supplied by the Geological Survey of Portugal
Language: English
Authors: Ricardo Pimentel (ORCID 0000-0003-0719-4664), Pedro Miguel Callapez (ORCID 0000-0002-6493-2208), Fernando Barroso-Barcenilla (ORCID 0000-0002-7938-7230), Senay Ozkaya de Juanas (ORCID 0000-0001-7668-9156), Vanda Faria dos Santos (ORCID 0000-0001-5842-7857)
Source: Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education. 2025 61(5):718-742.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 25
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Secondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Educational History, Secondary Education, Geology, Mineralogy, Science Education, Museums, Preservation
Geographic Terms: Portugal
DOI: 10.1080/00309230.2025.2450225
ISSN: 0030-9230
1477-674X
Abstract: Despite Portugal's peripheral position in Europe, the Enlightenment successfully introduced Natural History into public education. The inclusion of geology at the University of Coimbra laid the foundation for its integration into secondary schools. Following the Liberal Revolution of 1820, the need to educate the Portuguese population grew, supporting efforts to modernise the country. A decisive step was taken in 1836 with the creation of a national plan for secondary education. From the outset, practical science teaching was emphasised, leading to the establishment of school cabinets and museums. The study of minerals and rocks was incorporated into early secondary curricula, creating a demand for teaching collections. The Geological Survey of Portugal played a crucial role in supplying schools with geological specimens from duplicates of the Geological Museum's collections. A notable example is Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School in Figueira da Foz (west Portugal), which still houses mineral and rock specimens with their original labels. These collections link to fieldwork for Portugal's first geological map (1:500,000 scale) and early studies in national mineralogy and petrology. Serving pedagogical purposes for decades, they retain significant scientific and historiographical value, bearing witness to the history of Earth sciences in Portuguese secondary education.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1484348
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0188054207;j5401oct.25;2025Sep22.06:13;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0188054207-1">Minerals and rocks in Portuguese secondary education (1890s–1970s): a historical overview through a collection supplied by the Geological Survey of Portugal </title> <p>Despite Portugal's peripheral position in Europe, the Enlightenment successfully introduced Natural History into public education. The inclusion of geology at the University of Coimbra laid the foundation for its integration into secondary schools. Following the Liberal Revolution of 1820, the need to educate the Portuguese population grew, supporting efforts to modernise the country. A decisive step was taken in 1836 with the creation of a national plan for secondary education. From the outset, practical science teaching was emphasised, leading to the establishment of school cabinets and museums. The study of minerals and rocks was incorporated into early secondary curricula, creating a demand for teaching collections. The Geological Survey of Portugal played a crucial role in supplying schools with geological specimens from duplicates of the Geological Museum's collections. A notable example is Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School in Figueira da Foz (west Portugal), which still houses mineral and rock specimens with their original labels. These collections link to fieldwork for Portugal's first geological map (1:500,000 scale) and early studies in national mineralogy and petrology. Serving pedagogical purposes for decades, they retain significant scientific and historiographical value, bearing witness to the history of Earth sciences in Portuguese secondary education.</p> <p>Keywords: Geological collections; Geological Survey of Portugal; minerals and rocks; teaching collections; secondary education</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-2">Introduction</hd> <p>The rise of modern science during the Enlightenment, and the specificities of its main knowledge domains, resulted in a remarkable diversity of subjects gradually introduced into the teaching systems of European countries. This was particularly evident in Natural History, where the conceptual frameworks of mineralogy and geology underwent a significant evolution.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] This period was marked by major geological controversies surrounding the origin, structure, and age of the Earth, and the interpretation of its mineral deposits, rocks, and organised strata.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>]</p> <p>Despite being a peripheral country during the Industrial Revolution, Portugal in the late eighteenth century was not completely isolated from these achievements.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] This is evidenced by the introduction of Mineralogy, Geology, and the Art of Mines in the main content of the curriculum of the newly created Faculty of Natural Philosophy at the University of Coimbra, in 1772.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]</p> <p>Nevertheless, the formal teaching of geology in non-university contexts dates back at least to the sixteenth century, with the establishment of the Royal College of Arts in Coimbra, through subjects such as groundwater, volcanic phenomena, and earthquakes, for example.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>] There, the <emph>Comentários a Aristóteles do Colégio Jesuíta Conimbricense</emph>, written by the Jesuits, provided the conceptual foundation for the teaching of "natural philosophy". This work consisted of eight commentaries on philosophical texts of Aristotle (<emph>Physica</emph>, <emph>Meteororum, Parva Naturalia</emph>, <emph>Ethica, De Coelo</emph>, <emph>De Generatione et Corruptione</emph>, <emph>De Anima</emph>), first published in Coimbra and Lisbon between 1592 and 1606.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>]</p> <p>At the time, the approach to geological content was closely integrated with prevailing socio-religious conceptions, where ideas about the creation of the world from the Book of Genesis heavily influenced beliefs about geological time and the Earth History. According to this worldview, the Earth created through Divine action was considered only a few thousand years old; sedimentary rocks were seen as a result of the Flood, and fossils were regarded merely as diabolical inventions submerged by divine intervention.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>]</p> <p>The 1772 Enlightenment reform of the Portuguese university marked a profound paradigmatic shift in the way of approaching concepts within Natural History. The theories and ideas of Werner, Haüy, and other German, French, and British pioneers began to be taught at the Faculty of Natural Philosophy of Coimbra, as a seed planted that allowed these areas of science to extend into the growing Portuguese industry and pre-university education.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>] This expansion was more effectively developed during the nineteenth century, following the Peninsular War (1807–1814) and the establishment of a Liberal regime that democratised the education system (1820 and 1832–1834).</p> <p>Therefore, the teaching of natural sciences in general, and mineralogy and geology in particular, became part of the public Portuguese secondary school curriculum from its foundation in 1836[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>] (see Appendix A).</p> <p>From the very first regulations, the need for a practical and experimental teaching-learning process, rather than a theoretical and abstract instruction, was emphasised. To support these strategies, school cabinets and museums were created, providing teaching materials for less bookish methodologies and more practical and laboratory-based activities.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>] As a common practice, these resources included didactic collections of minerals and rocks.</p> <p>The study of rocks, defined as natural bodies formed by coherent aggregates of one or more minerals, and of minerals, which are naturally occurring inorganic elements or compounds characterised by an orderly internal structure, distinctive chemical composition, crystal form, and physical properties, has long been important to the natural science curriculum in Portuguese education. Their study was particularly relevant for those pursuing advanced fields such as military, civil, and mining engineering, as well as chemistry, medicine, and pharmacy.</p> <p>By this time, the teaching collections housed in the national lyceums of the main cities consisted of a variety of samples collected from outcrops and mines, ranging from local to national contexts. These collections were sometimes complemented with didactic sets purchased from international comptoirs.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>] Notably, many of these specimens originated from the Geological Survey of Portugal (GSP), a state organisation with a long tradition as a supplier of secondary schools with teaching collections, necessary to implement their study plans.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>]</p> <p>Created in 1849 as the "Geological Commission" and renamed in 1918 after the establishment of the Republican regime,[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>] this institution was devoted to the stratigraphic and mining knowledge and mapping of the country.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>] The development of this geological survey is also tied to the Regeneration movement of 1851, which solidified Liberalism in Portugal. The doctrine of this progress movement centred on fundamental areas such as industry and transport systems.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>]</p> <p>This institution soon housed a large and exceptional repository of minerals, rocks, and fossils from mainland Portugal, the Azores, the Madeira archipelagos, and overseas territories, showcasing the diversity of contexts and ages that characterise these regions.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref16">16</reflink>] These extensive collections, housed at the Geological Museum and its dependencies in Lisbon, soon proved to be an almost inexhaustible source of duplicates available to prepare didactic collections for secondary schools.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>]</p> <p>The teaching collections of minerals and rocks housed at the national lyceums were extensively used for decades. Nowadays, at least for the few surviving examples, they can be considered as a significant heritage with singular samples from outcrops and mines that no longer exist, as well as repositories of the history of Natural Science teaching, meaningful for future generations.</p> <p>This paper aims to reveal a piece of this history through the GSP collection of the ancient lyceum of Figueira da Foz in west central Portugal, a school founded in 1932. Many of these mineral and rock samples originated from the previous Geological Commission of the Kingdom, and their use in practical and experimental seminars was fundamentally influenced by the educational reforms of the 1930s and the following years. The study and documentation of these historical geological collections allow us to understand their practical impact on the teaching of geology. It also contributes to their awareness and valorisation.</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-3">Methodology</hd> <p>To understand the need for geological teaching collections throughout the history of secondary education, the origin of these studies and their related educational system in Portugal and the legislation underlying the main secondary education reforms from the foundation of secondary education in 1836 to the 1950s were analysed.</p> <p>The methodological analysis also involved a comprehensive review of all existing geological collections housed within the school laboratories and classrooms of the Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School (Figueira da Foz, Portugal). The primary aim was to identify specimens of significant provenance, particularly those originating from old collections of the GSP. To ensure their preservation, these identified specimens were signposted to minimise excessive handling and use in future practical procedures and laboratory tests. Also, a thorough documentation process was undertaken. This included photographing the specimens along with their respective boxes and labels. Additionally, all relevant information present on both specimen labels and box labels was recorded in a digital format.</p> <p>Recognising the minimalist nature of the current inventory of the geological collections, efforts were made to retrieve additional documentation from the school archives. Through this endeavour, a typed inventory containing supplementary information and other important documents related to the didactic material and scientific instruments were successfully located. The search for relevant documentation included seeking internal records to demonstrate how the geological collections were used throughout the teaching-learning process. This effort fruitfully uncovered a substantial number of old typed dichotomous keys created by the teachers for their implementation in practical mineralogy and petrology lessons.</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-4">Overview of the origins and evolution of the non-higher public education system in Portugal</hd> <p>After the expulsion of the Jesuit Order from the Portuguese educational system in 1759, following two centuries of hegemony, several institutions either emerged or were reformed, giving rise to public schools of a non-university nature.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref18">18</reflink>] However, the curricula adopted by these Enlightenment-era schools prioritised Latin, Greek, rhetoric, and rational and moral philosophy over Natural History.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>] Attendance was primarily aimed at preparing students for higher education.</p> <p>These reforms also impacted official primary education. Several hundred schools were then established to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>] Intermediate technical and vocational education emerged in the mid eighteenth century, but it was never integrated with the classical and humanistic education that would come to characterise the schools established after the Jesuit Expulsion and the national lyceums created in 1836. Although technical and vocational education had been developed since the mid nineteenth century, reflecting the needs dictated by the Industrial Revolution, its significant expansion only began much later, in the 1950s.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>]</p> <p>A profound distinction existed between lyceums and vocational education in terms of content, purpose, and the social backgrounds of students. While lyceums were attended by the aristocracy and upper bourgeoisie, technical and vocational education catered almost exclusively to the urban working classes or rural populations with aspirations for upward mobility.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>]</p> <p>Secondary education, overseen by the State, was initially intended for male students. The first legal measures to establish public secondary education for females date back to 1888, but it was not until 1906 that the first female lyceum was created, ending the monopoly of the private sector for the education of women.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>]</p> <p>During the Liberalism period (1820–1910) and the First Republic (1910–1926), there were attempts to expand institutional education provision, albeit with limited success. The Estado Novo regime (1933–1974) saw a moderate increase in schooling during the 1930s, followed by a significant expansion from the 1950s onwards. By around 1960, primary education had achieved full enrolment, while secondary education entered a phase of substantial growth.[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>]</p> <p>From a broader perspective, the Estado Novo implemented a strategy that prioritised reducing and simplifying school learning. This was achieved by limiting syllabus content, reinforcing moral and religious elements, and compartmentalising education. Such compartmentalisation was evident in the separation of sexes and social groups, as well as measures that opposed the integrative principles of a unified school system. The regime also reduced the skills and academic qualifications of teachers, intensified inspection activities, and imposed general limitations on the human and financial resources allocated to education.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>]</p> <p>Since the eighteenth-century State-led reforms were implemented across various educational levels, the public Portuguese educational system was subject to legal norms that proved difficult to implement. Consequently, successive reforms repeatedly failed, leaving Portugal with some of the lowest educational attainment levels in Europe – a situation that only began to improve in the final decades of the twentieth century.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>]</p> <p>Currently, Portuguese law mandates universal, free, and compulsory schooling for children and young people aged from 6 to 18 years old. The Portuguese educational system is divided into different stages, beginning with Pre-school Education, an optional cycle for children aged 3 to 6 (the age at which compulsory schooling begins). This is followed by Basic Education, which comprises three sequential cycles: the first cycle (of 4 years of duration), the second cycle (2 years), and the third cycle (3 years). Secondary Education, a three-year cycle, offers scientific-humanistic courses, vocational courses, specialised artistic courses, and apprenticeship courses.</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-5">Historical perspective of geological collections in Portuguese institutions of secondary educ...</hd> <p>The institutionalisation of secondary education in Portugal dates back to the Enlightenment reforms that followed the expulsion of the Jesuits from teaching, in 1759, after a long interval of two centuries where they were in charge of all instruction grades.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>] However, it was with the new liberal ideals arising from the constitutional revolution of 1820 that public secondary education became a more prominent matter of discussion.[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref28">28</reflink>] Due to an absolutist resurrection followed by several years of civil war, the first political actions to reform Portuguese secondary education did not occur until 1835.[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref29">29</reflink>] In 1836, the embryo of the future secondary schools was created through the Plan for National Lyceums.[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref30">30</reflink>] Lyceums were initially established in the cities of Lisbon, Coimbra, and Porto. Over time, their reach extended to district capitals, although this expansion sometimes occurred much later.[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>]</p> <p>Reading the preamble of the law, it becomes clear that the aim was to prepare citizens, even those not intending to pursue higher education, with the scientific and technical knowledge and skills necessary to contribute to the modernisation of a nation that was chronically lagging in European development. Consequently, from the outset, the lyceum curriculum included competences related to scientific knowledge and a technical component, covering areas such as mineralogy and geology (see Appendix A).</p> <p>This emphasis on the study of mineralogy and geology was a direct consequence of the belief that national development depended on exploiting the available mineral resources of the country. This vision is similarly reflected in a Royal Decree,[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref32">32</reflink>] which sought to document the state of mining activity across the kingdom with the aim of promoting growth in this economic sector.</p> <p>The Plan for National Lyceums established that each school should have, among other facilities for practical activities, a "cabinet" in which one of the parts would be dedicated to mineralogy.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref33">33</reflink>] Following the establishment of secondary education, a series of regulations were published, each affecting in some way the teaching of natural sciences and geology[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>] (see Appendix A).</p> <p>However, it was the educational reform of 1854[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref35">35</reflink>] that effectively integrated science subjects into the secondary school curriculum, leading schools to receive scientific instruments and teaching collections.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref36">36</reflink>]</p> <p>The 1860 reform reinstated the "auxiliary teaching cabinets" abolished in 1844,[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref37">37</reflink>] as well as establishing in the main lyceums a "natural history museum," although their presence in other lyceums depended on available funds.[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>]</p> <p>In 1894/95, governmental initiatives introduced a significant secondary education reform,[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>] which blueprint persisted until the 1930s, with occasional modifications.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>] With this reform, the natural sciences received an augmented workload, and the demand for geological collections increased.[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>]</p> <p>With the 1917 and 1918 regulations of the young Republican regime, the "individual practical work" was carried out in the laboratories organised in shifts,[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref42">42</reflink>] a practice which continues today in secondary school practical teaching. Notably, the 1918 reform highlighted the need for cabinets and laboratories with enough materials for "individual practical work," which was considered as indispensable for teaching sciences in the complementary course.[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref43">43</reflink>] The practical work in the natural sciences aimed to cultivate observation skills, stimulate comparison, and enhance the ability to relate.[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref44">44</reflink>]</p> <p>Following the 1936 educational main reform instituted by the Estado Novo regime, mineral and rock collections became to be extensively used for practical teaching activities in Portuguese secondary schools until the mid 1970s. The regulations published during this political period included explicit guidelines for their use (Table 1).</p> <p>Table 1. Overview of Portuguese public secondary education and natural sciences subjects with geology topics, from the 1930s to the 1970s.<sups>a</sups> In this historical context, the secondary education encompasses all schooling beyond the initial four years of basic education (compulsory attendance up to 3rd year), and includes only the lyceums and excludes the technical schools.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Reforms</td><td>Framework</td><td>Science subject where geology topics were integrated</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1931–1932</td><td>General course – 1st cycle (1st and 2nd grades)</td><td><italic>Nature sciences</italic> (throughout all the course, but geology topics only in 1st grade)</td></tr><tr><td>General course – 2nd cycle (3rd, 4th and 5th grades)</td><td><italic>Physical and natural sciences</italic> (throughout all the course grades, but geology topics only in 4th grade)</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course in letters (6th and 7th grades)</td><td>(without natural sciences subject, but in the 6th grade, topics on tectonics, seismology, volcanism and external geodynamics are taught in <italic>Geography</italic>)</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course in sciences (6th and 7th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural Sciences</italic> (throughout all the course and geology topics in both grades)</td></tr><tr><td>1936 The general and complementary courses were ended</td><td>1st cycle (1st, 2nd and 3rd grades)</td><td><italic>Geographical-natural sciences</italic> (throughout all the cycle, but geology topics only in 1st grade)</td></tr><tr><td>2nd cycle (4th, 5th and 6th grades)</td><td><italic>Physical and natural sciences</italic> (throughout all the cycle, and geology topics in all grades)</td></tr><tr><td>3rd cycle (7th grade)</td><td><italic>Geographical sciences</italic> (semester subject with geology topics)</td></tr><tr><td>1947 and 1954</td><td>1st cycle (1st and 2nd grades)</td><td><italic>Geographical-natural sciences</italic> (geology topics only in 1st grade)</td></tr><tr><td>2nd cycle (3rd to 5th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural Sciences</italic> (geology topics only in 4th and 5th grades)</td></tr><tr><td>3rd cycle (6th and 7th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic> (geology topics in both grades)</td></tr><tr><td>1967</td><td>The first cycle of secondary education and technical education are unified, making them common</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <sups>a</sups>Decree 20369 of 8 October 1931, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Repartição do Ensino Secundário, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 232, de 8 de outubro de 1931; Decree 20741 of 11 January 1932, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Repartição do Ensino Secundário, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 8, de 11 de janeiro de 1932; Decree 27085 of 14 October 1936, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 241, de 14 de outubro, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário; Decree-Law 27084 of 14 October 1936, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 241, de 14 de outubro, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário; Decree-Law 36507 of 17 September 1947, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Liceal, Diário do Governo, Série I, n.° 216, de 17 de setembro de 1947; Decree 37112 of 22 October 1948, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Liceal, Diário do Governo, Série I, n.° 247, de 22 de outubro de 1948; Decree 39807 of 7 September 1954, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Liceal, Diário do Governo, Série I, n.° 198, de 7 de setembro de 1954; and Decree-Law 47480 of 2 January 1967, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Gabinete do Ministro, Diário do Governo, Série I, n.° 1, de 2 de janeiro.</p> <p>Following the extinction of the lyceums as a school institution in 1978,[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref45">45</reflink>] their mineral and rock collections from the GSP and other didactic and scientific heritage likely underwent minimal changes or meaningful losses solely due to this major institutional change, as the resultant secondary schools retained their cabinets, museums, and laboratories.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref46">46</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-6">Natural sciences teaching and hands-on collections of mineralogy and petrology at the Figueir...</hd> <p>The Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School (JCSS), located in the parish of Tavarede (Figueira da Foz, Portugal), was founded in 1932 as a municipal lyceum.[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref47">47</reflink>] In 1961, the central government decreed that this school should become a national lyceum,[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref48">48</reflink>] with a new building constructed and inaugurated in 1968 (Figure 1(a–c)).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. The Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School (JCSS, Figueira da Foz, west central Portugal). (a) Location of Figueira da Foz in the context of Portugal. (b) Figueira da Foz Nacional Lyceum (early 1970s). (c) Photographic view of the access to the current main building. Reproduced with the permission of JCSS.</p> <p>After 90 years of science education, the school houses an important set of mineralogy and petrology collections and related historical equipment, such as wood and glass crystallographic models, Mohs hardness scales, Kobell fusibility scales, Jolly scales and contact goniometers, that have served, and many of which still serve, to support laboratory and experimental geology teaching activities (Figure 2(a–c)).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Historical mineralogy and crystallography teaching material (JCSS natural sciences collection). (a) Kobell scale (fusibility scale). (b) Mohs scale (hardness scale). (c) Contact goniometer in its wooden case. Reproduced with the permission of JCSS (photographs by Gustavo Pinho). Graphic scale = 5 cm.</p> <p>When the Figueira da Foz municipal lyceum was established in 1932, it was only authorised to teach the first cycle of secondary education.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>] It was not until 1956 that municipal lyceums were approved to teach the second cycle.[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>] The third cycle began only in 1962 after the national lyceum status. As a result, the use of geological collections in JCSS became more important after the 1956–1957 and 1962–1963 school years.</p> <p>By analysing the regulations of successive educational reforms in secondary education since the founding of the school (see Table 1), it is possible to determine in which key stages and activities of the SGP mineral and rock collections may have been used. Moreover, this analysis reveals how the instruments and resources in the scientific school collection were utilised.</p> <p>Regarding the reform of 1932,[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref51">51</reflink>] didactic collections of minerals and rocks were introduced in the 1st grade of secondary education. At this stage, students were taught the concept of rock, with specific references to granite, limestone, and clay. Geology returned to the classroom in the 4th grade, where the most common minerals and rocks in Portuguese territory were briefly studied. The minerals included galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, quartz, "limonite," magnetite, haematite, cassiterite, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, wolframite, feldspar, pyroxene, amphibole, garnet, micas, and "kaolin". Rocks were classified according to their genesis as "eruptive," sedimentary, and metamorphic, and coals were also given attention. In the 6th grade of the science course, students studied physical and chemical mineralogy, crystallography, and the main minerals found in Portugal. Practical work on crystallography involved measuring angles with the Carangeot goniometer. Glass, wood, or cardboard models were used in crystallography studies, and, when available, good euhedral crystals were examined. It was compulsory for students to draw the specimens in class. Minerals were recognised primarily by determining their external characteristics, such as colour, lustre, streak, hardness, toughness, cleavage, fracture, and density (using the Jolly scale). Fusibility tests were generally not conducted due to the difficulty the students had with this assessment. The identification of minerals was essentially based on their external features. In the 7th grade, students conducted macroscopic studies of rocks and once more classified them as sedimentary, "eruptive," or metamorphic. Portuguese minerals were identified by examining their external characteristics. Additionally, pupils worked on gaining general knowledge of the geological map of Portugal.</p> <p>Given that the school only taught the first cycle of secondary education (see Table 1), the use of the collections would be limited in the early years.</p> <p>As a result of the 1936 reform,[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref52">52</reflink>] the mineralogy collection was used in the 4th grade for demonstrations in the study of crystallography, and crystallographic models were also employed. In the 5th grade, this collection was handled by students with the objective of studying some physical properties and a general identification of various minerals. The petrology collection was mainly utilised in the 1st and 6th grades for classifying rocks and making summary observations of the most common types. In the third cycle of studies, geology was included in the subject of Geographic sciences,[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref53">53</reflink>] which covered topics such as seismology, tectonics, volcanology, external geodynamics, hydrogeology, geohistory, and the general knowledge of the geological map of Portugal, but probably without an extensive use of the mineral and rock collection.</p> <p>The educational reform of 1947,[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref54">54</reflink>] despite some disruptions, is essentially a reform of continuity.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref55">55</reflink>] However, it minimises the importance of various subjects, including natural sciences. The last two years of secondary education became more specialised according to the courses to be pursued in higher education. This measure was also reflected in the curriculum, with the introduction of natural sciences as a subject only for pupils planning to study fields related to geographical, geological, biological, chemical, and physical sciences, as well as agronomy, engineering, medicine, veterinary science, pharmacy, and military schools. As a result of these changes, the workload for natural sciences throughout secondary school was reduced. The 1954 programmes of subjects,[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref56">56</reflink>] particularly in the context of natural sciences, serves as an extension of the principles outlined in the 1948 document (Table 1). In the two regulations mentioned above, the use of didactic collections of minerals and rocks would be mostly during practical work. In the 1st grade, a reference is made to the study of rocks. As in the 1936 plan, students should recognise granite, basalt, limestone, shale, and clay by examining specimens.</p> <p>In the 4th grade, minerals were studied with an emphasis on recognising and studying various properties such as brightness, colour, streak, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and fusibility. The aim was to summarise some minerals: diamond, pyrite, chalcopyrite, quartz, "limonite," magnetite, haematite, cassiterite, calcite, gypsum, wolframite, orthoclase, "kaolin," and micas (muscovite and biotite).</p> <p>In the 5th grade, some rocks were studied briefly, including granite, basalt, sand and sandstone, schist, conglomerate, clay, limestone, coals, mica schist, gneiss, and marble. In the 6th grade, the study of crystallography and Portuguese mineral resources involved practical work with minerals. In the 7th grade, lithological studies once again required the macroscopic recognition of the main examples of sedimentary, magmatic, and metamorphic rocks.</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-7">The historical mineralogy and petrology collections of the Portuguese Geological Survey at Dr...</hd> <p>The JCSS mineralogy and petrology collections include several sets of specimens supplied by the GSP. These historical collections are stored in numbered red metal boxes, each with a handwritten label containing information about the specimen. It should be noted that sometimes the labels on the bottom of the boxes contain more information than the typed catalogue, which suggests that these labels predate the catalogue. This indicates that more complete catalogues once accompanied the collections, but they appear to have vanished.</p> <p>The GSP collections' origins lie mainly in the research work of the Geological Commissions geologists.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref57">57</reflink>] However, the field collection of the specimens was fundamentally carried out by their collectors.[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref58">58</reflink>] The first requests for these collections began as early as the 1880s,[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref59">59</reflink>] but the widespread distribution to national lyceums, particularly during the first decades of the twentieth century, is exemplified by the provision of mineral and rock collections to the Camões, Pedro Nunes, and Passos Manuel lyceums in Lisbon during 1915–1917.[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref60">60</reflink>] Most of the collections supplied to schools by the GSP date back to the First Republic and the early years of the Estado Novo.</p> <p>During the period between the two World Wars, the GSP lost a significant part of their research and publication capacity. This decline was primarily due to disinvestment, which led to funding problems and a shortage of human resources.[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref61">61</reflink>] With the relaunch of the geological cartography of the country at a scale of 1:50,000 from the early 1950s onwards,[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref62">62</reflink>] the flow of collections to schools may have ceased, as the specimens in the Geological Museum collections were essential for fulfilling the cartographic mission.</p> <p>These JCSS collections went through some critical moments that led to losses and misunderstandings for the original collections. In 1968, the move to the current location of the JCSS was one of these moments, and the other was the packing and transfer within the premises during the refurbishment works in the current building between 2009 and 2011. Another factor that led to changes in the original collections was the reorganisations and restructurings carried out by teachers over time, to better serve their fundamental purpose as a teaching resource for practical or laboratory activities. A case in point is the reorganisation of the rock collection, displayed in the cabinets of the current laboratory no. 4, which was reorganised and renumbered, and includes specimens with old labels from the Geological Commission and from the Mineralogical and Geological Laboratory and Museum of the University of Coimbra, supplied during the first half of the twentieth century. The petrology collection currently brings together the collections that were in two existing classrooms before the school remodelling.</p> <p>Also, the main old mineral collection likely resulted from a mishmash of specimens from smaller collections previously held by the school. Different specimens from at least two other sources were identified: some rare specimens with old Spanish labels but no institutional or dealer identification, and others from the Mineralogical and Geological Laboratory and Museum of the University of Coimbra.</p> <p>Two specimens with GSP identification labels were found outside the collections, placed in drawers with other samples used for seminars. These were a kaolinite specimen and a diorite sample.</p> <p>The old mineralogy collection is of historiographical interest, but only seven of the recorded specimens and lots from the type catalogue retain traces of the original GSP labelling (Table 2; Figure 3(a–d)). One of the best specimens, in terms of the preservation state of the labels, is the riebeckite sample from the peralkaline syenites of the Alter Pedroso massif (Alter do Chão, Portalegre district), the collection year of which is 1903 (Figure 3(a)). Given the date indicated, this specimen is temporally related to the collection work carried out by collectors from the last Geological Commission (1901–1918), under the supervision of its director Joaquim Nery Delgado (1835–1908),[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>] which resulted in specimens used in pioneering Portuguese petrography and mineralogy studies on the Alter Pedroso syenite and its minerals.[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref64">64</reflink>]</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Examples of mineral specimens from the Geological Survey of Portugal, which preserve some of the original labelling (JCSS historical mineral collection). (a) Riebeckite (no. 113, no. 120 in typed inventory). (b) Lepidolite (no. 120, no. 128 in typed inventory). (c) Kaolinite (no. 129, no. 132 in typed inventory). (d) Galena (no. 15). Reproduced with the permission of JCSS. Graphic scale = 1 cm.</p> <p>Table 2. Samples in the Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School, JCSS historical mineral collection with preserved Geological Commission labelling. X = preserved, void = not preserved.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Actual (typed) catalogue no.</td><td>Identification (as in box label or specimen label)</td><td>Location (as in box label or specimen label)</td><td>Preserved information in Geological Commission labels *vestigial or/and unreadable</td></tr><tr><td>Institution</td><td>Location</td><td>Date</td><td>Specimen no.</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><bold>15</bold> (15)</td><td>Galene</td><td /><td>X</td><td>X*</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><bold>106</bold> (111)</td><td>Epidote</td><td /><td>X*</td><td>X*</td><td /><td>X*</td></tr><tr><td><bold>113</bold> (120)</td><td>Riebeckite</td><td>Alter Pedroso</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>28-2-1903</td><td>X*</td></tr><tr><td><bold>120</bold> (128)</td><td>Lepidolite</td><td>Mangualde</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><bold>129</bold> (132)</td><td>Kaolinite</td><td /><td>X</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><bold>139</bold> (136)</td><td>Analcime</td><td>Monchique</td><td>X</td><td /><td /><td>X*</td></tr><tr><td><bold>– –</bold></td><td>Kaolinite</td><td /><td>X</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>The mineralogy collection keeps the original adopted classification according to Klockmann's mineralogy treatise[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref65">65</reflink>] (see Appendix B), but with a few lost specimens and a new catalogue numbering. The collection of minerals includes names related to rocks (flint, phosphorite), ores (manganese ore), invalid or dubious names (asbestos, jasper, psilomelane), informal designations (hornblende, black and white mica), obsolete names (tantalite-columbite), names that no longer represent specific mineral species but rather series, groups, or supergroups of minerals (e.g. apatite, chlorite, garnet, olivine, serpentine, tourmaline, wolframite), varieties of minerals (agate, chalcedony, sericite), and solid-solution series between two end-member minerals (e.g. lepidolite from polylithionite-trilithionite series). This nomenclature reflects the simplification required for the level of education for which these collections were intended and the adopted mineralogical systematic in the mid twentieth century.</p> <p>The rock collection is highly diverse and comprehensive, regarding its purpose. Unfortunately, most of the specimens from GSP have lost their original labels, and the catalogues currently available, including the typed catalogue, do not record the institution of origin, nor other relevant information such as the entity that provided them, location, or date of collection, leaving only a few locations on the labels of the boxes. However, the few remaining GSP labels testify to the historiographical interest of this collection, relating some of the specimens, particularly those of magmatic rocks (Table 3; Figure 4(a,b)), to classic studies of Portuguese petrography dating from the late nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth century.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 4. Examples of magmatic rock specimens from the Geological Survey of Portugal, which preserve some of the original labelling (JCSS main rock collection). (a) Teschenite (M42). (b) Basaltic tuff (M61). Reproduced with the permission of JCSS. Graphic scale = 1 cm.</p> <p>Table 3. Samples in the main Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School, JCSS historical rock collection with preserved Geological Commission labelling. X = preserved, void = not preserved.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Actual catalogue no.</td><td>Identification (as in box label or specimen label)</td><td>Location (as in box label or specimen label)</td><td>Preserved information in Geological Commission labels * vestigial or/and unreadable</td></tr><tr><td>Institution</td><td>Location</td><td>Date</td><td>Specimen no.</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>M32</td><td>Gabbro</td><td>Sintra</td><td>X</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>M42</td><td>Teschenite</td><td>Sesimbra</td><td>X</td><td>X*</td><td /><td>X*</td></tr><tr><td>M61</td><td>Basaltic tuff</td><td>Carnaxide</td><td>X</td><td>X</td><td /><td>X</td></tr><tr><td>– -</td><td>Diorite</td><td>– -</td><td>X</td><td>X*</td><td /><td>X*</td></tr><tr><td>S12</td><td>Sandstone</td><td>Lourinhã</td><td>X</td><td>X*</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>S24</td><td>Sandstone with clay veins</td><td>Chão do Bispo (Coimbra)</td><td /><td>X</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>S25</td><td>Coarse-grained red sandstone</td><td /><td>X</td><td>X*</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>S26</td><td>Sandstone</td><td /><td>X</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>S44</td><td>Limestone</td><td /><td>X*</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>S45</td><td>Limestone</td><td /><td>X</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>S47</td><td>Limestone</td><td /><td>X</td><td>X</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>S52</td><td>Argillaceous limestone</td><td /><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>1863</td><td>X*</td></tr><tr><td>S56</td><td>Compact limestone</td><td /><td>X</td><td>X</td><td>1865</td><td>X*</td></tr><tr><td>S57</td><td>Compact limestone</td><td /><td>X</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>S80</td><td>Marl</td><td /><td>X</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 *vestigial or/and unreadable.</p> <p>An example of this is a sample identified as gabbro (M-32), from the Sintra mountains (Sintra, Lisbon district), which represents a mafraite (a variety of monzogabbro) from the classic Rio Touro outcrop.[<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref66">66</reflink>] This rock was described by the French geologist and mineralogist Alfred Lacroix (1863–1948), based on specimens sent to him by the Swiss geologist Paul Choffat (1849–1919).[<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref67">67</reflink>] He also received a collection of syenites from Alter Pedroso, on which he published a mineralogical and petrographical study and where he established the lusitanite variety attributed to coarse-grained mesocratic syenites.[<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref68">68</reflink>]</p> <p>Another example is the sample of teschenite (M-42) from Sesimbra (Setúbal district) (Figure 4(a)), mentioned by Choffat[<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref69">69</reflink>] and studied microscopically by the Spanish petrographer José Macpherson (1839–1902), with the first results published in 1882,[<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref70">70</reflink>] and more broadly in 1884.[<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref71">71</reflink>]</p> <p>In the group of sedimentary rocks, 11 samples were found still bearing the Geological Commission labels (Table 3; Figure 5(a–f)). Two of them (S52 and S56) also retain labels with the location and date of collection (Figure 5(d,f)). These samples date back to 1863 and 1865, respectively. These specimens are likely part of the collections resulting from fieldwork conducted by the first Geological Commission (1857–1868), between 1860 and 1865. This geological campaign focused on the 1:100,000-scale chorographic maps by Filipe Folque (1800–1874) of the north of Lisbon, the mouth of the Tagus, and the Arrábida mountain range (Setúbal).[<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref72">72</reflink>]</p> <p>Graph: Figure 5. Examples of sedimentary rock specimens from the Geological Survey of Portugal, which preserve some of the original labelling (JCSS main rock collection). (a) Sandstone (S12). (b) Sandstone (S26). (c) Red sandstone (S25). (d) Limestone (S56). (e) Limestone (S45). (f) Argillaceous limestone (S52). Reproduced with the permission of JCSS. Graphic scale = 1 cm.</p> <p>The location of specimen S56 is the Matta de Rei cut in Sesimbra. This specimen was collected during the geological fieldwork of Carlos Ribeiro (1813–1882), along with his collectors, in the Arrábida mountain. It was part of a collection held by the Geological Museum, which Choffat considered valuable, although he was unable to determine the exact location where the samples had been collected 50 years earlier.[<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref73">73</reflink>] As such, they are an extraordinary testimony to the collection made during the fieldwork of the first Geological Commission. This would be fundamental for Ribeiro and Nery Delgado to publish the first 1:500,000 geological map of Portugal in 1876.[<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref74">74</reflink>]</p> <p>These collections, primarily consisting of specimens from the GSP, are both extensive. This comprehensiveness likely relates to the school programme defined in the 1894/1895 reform (see Appendix A), which detailed the study of crystallography, the physical and chemical properties of minerals, and descriptive mineralogy (Table 4). Rocks were also meticulously studied and classified according to various criteria in addition to their geological origin as "eruptive," sedimentary or metamorphic (Table 5).</p> <p>Table 4. Mineralogy (4th and 7th grades) in 1894/1895 Portuguese secondary education main reform.<sups>a</sups> The terminology aligns with the original document.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Descriptive mineralogy</td><td>Practical and laboratory procedures in classroom</td></tr><tr><td>Mineralogical classification</td><td>Mineral specimens</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Elements</td><td>Metalloids</td><td>sulphur, diamond, graphite</td><td>Mineral morphology: texture of minerals, crystallisation processes, crystallography. Physical mineralogy: specific weight (pycnometer, areometers and heavy liquids), hardness (Mohs scale), cleavage and fracture, optical properties (colour, trace, brightness, diaphaneity), fusibility. Mineral chemistry: blowtorch (open and closed tube test, on charcoal), flame colouring.</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Metals</td><td>gold, "mercury," copper</td></tr><tr><td>Anhydrous and hydrated oxides</td><td>of metalloids of metals</td><td>quartz, opal haematite, "limonite," magnetite, corundum</td></tr><tr><td>Sulphides</td><td /><td>pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, blende, antimonite, cinnabar auripigment, rosalgar</td></tr><tr><td>Haloid salts</td><td /><td>fluorite, "rock salt"</td></tr><tr><td>Oxysalts</td><td /><td>calcite, aragonite, malachite, selenite, apatite, topaz, tourmaline, feldspars, clays, amphiboles, pyroxenes, "asbestos," talc, micas</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 <sups>a</sups>Decree of 14 September 1895, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direcção geral de instrucção publica, Diário do Governo n.° 208, de 16 de setembro.</p> <p>Table 5. Rock classification according to their structure and arrangement in the crust (5th and 7th grades) in 1894/1895 Portuguese secondary education reform. The terminology aligns with the original document<sups>a</sups>.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Rock classification (according to their structure and arrangement in the crust)</td><td>Rock specimens studied in the classroom</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><italic><bold>1. Structure</bold></italic></td></tr><tr><td>1.1. Crystalline and vitreous rocks</td><td><bold><italic>2. Arrangement in the crust</italic></bold></td><td>2.1. Stratified</td><td>limestone (granular, fibrous, lamellar, compact), marble</td></tr><tr><td>2.2. Schistous</td><td>schists (argillaceous, chloritic, talcous, micaceous), mica schist, gneiss</td></tr><tr><td>2.3. Massive</td><td>granite, porphyry, syenite, diorite, trachyte, obsidian, pumice, melaphyre, basalt, gabbro, diabase, serpentinite</td></tr><tr><td>1.2. Clastic or fragmented</td><td>sand, gravel, pebbles, erratic blocks, incoherent volcanic products, sandstone, conglomerate, breccia</td></tr><tr><td>Argillaceous</td><td>clay, kaolin</td></tr><tr><td>Organic origin</td><td>coral limestone, chalk, peat, lignite, anthracite</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 <sups>a</sups>Decree of 14 September 1895, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direcção geral de instrucção publica, Diário do Governo n.° 208, de 16 de setembro.</p> <p>Notably, all surviving labels affixed to the specimens indicate the "Geological Commission" as the institution of origin, suggesting they were prepared before 1919. Looking at the date the school was founded, it is clear that the collections received contained specimens that had already existed for decades in the Geological Museum duplicate collections.</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-8">Final remarks</hd> <p>After several decades of use, the Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School (JCSS) mineralogy and petrology historical collections are well-preserved and carefully packaged, but their original organisation has been lost, and there are only 22 specimens that retain their original Geological Survey of Portugal (GSP) labelling. Analysing these few specimens that have preserved the information has allowed us to relate them to some of the pioneering works of Portuguese mineralogy, petrology and geological cartography, attesting to the scientific and historiographical interest of these old geological collections.</p> <p>On the other hand, these collections bear witness to the way in which geology was taught in secondary education. They also reflect the unique role that the "Geological Commissions" and the GSP played in equipping Portuguese lyceums with the geological collections they needed for their seminars, which successive regulations advocated in terms of practical and laboratory teaching. This mission of the GSP brought the testimony of the scientific labour of its geologists and collectors to civil society, and this memory continues to spread throughout the old Portuguese secondary schools.</p> <p>This essay is a small contribution to the wider work of studying, inventorying, and conserving the geological collections of the secondary schools provided by the GSP.</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-9">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>We extend our gratitude to Carlos Santos, the Headmaster of Dr. Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School, for his support and availability, which facilitated the study of the collections. The authors also wish to thank the reviewers for their thorough analysis of the manuscript and their valuable suggestions.</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-10">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-11">Supplementary Information</hd> <p>Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/00309230.2025.2450225</p> <hd id="AN0188054207-12">Appendix A.</hd> <p>Overview of Portuguese public secondary education and natural sciences subjects (with geology topics), from 1836 to the 1920s. In this historical context, secondary education encompasses all schooling beyond the initial four years of basic education, and includes only the lyceums and excludes the technical schools.[<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref75">75</reflink>]</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Reforms</td><td>Framework</td><td>Science subject where geology topics were integrated</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1836</td><td>The secondary education was structured in independent subjects</td><td><italic>Principles of natural history of the three kingdoms of nature applied to arts and crafts</italic></td></tr><tr><td>1844</td><td><italic>Introduction to the natural history of the three kingdoms, with their most useful applications to industry, and general notions of physics</italic> (only for a few lyceums)</td></tr><tr><td>1854</td><td><italic>Principles of physics and chemistry with an introduction to the natural history of the three kingdoms</italic> (only for Coimbra and Porto national lyceums)</td></tr><tr><td>1860 Secondary education with 10 subjects in 5 years</td><td><italic>Elementary chemistry and physics – introduction to the natural history of the three kingdoms</italic> (only in the 5th grade in four days a week)</td></tr><tr><td>1863 Secondary education with 11 subjects in 5 years</td><td><italic>Principles of physics and chemistry, and introduction to the natural history of the three kingdoms</italic> (only in the 5th grade in daily lessons)</td></tr><tr><td>1868 Secondary education was extended to 6 years</td><td>2nd-class course (1st, 2nd, 3rd grades) 1st-class course (4th, 5th and 6th grades)</td><td><italic>Physics, chemistry and natural history</italic> (throughout the course except for the 4th grade)</td></tr><tr><td>1873</td><td>1st-class lyceums (with special and general courses) 2nd-class lyceums (only special course)</td><td><italic>Principles of physics and chemistry and introduction to natural history</italic> (in the 5th grade of 1st-class lyceums and in the 4th grade of 2nd-class lyceums)</td></tr><tr><td>1880 Letters and sciences sections were created for the complementary course</td><td>General course (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grades)</td><td><italic>Elements of physics, chemistry and natural history</italic> (1st and 2nd parts) (only for the 3rd and 4th grade of general course)</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course (5th and 6th grades)</td><td>(without natural sciences subject)</td></tr><tr><td>1883 Secondary education is organised in 3 classes</td><td>1st class (1st and 2nd grades)</td><td>(without natural sciences subject)</td></tr><tr><td>2nd class (3rd and 4th grades)</td><td><italic>Elements of physics, chemistry and natural history</italic> (in 3rd and 4th grades)</td></tr><tr><td>3rd class – letters and sciences sections (5th and 6th grades)</td><td>(without natural sciences subject)</td></tr><tr><td>1886</td><td>1st class (1st and 2nd grades)</td><td>(without natural sciences subject)</td></tr><tr><td>2nd class (3rd and 4th grades)</td><td><italic>Physics and chemistry and introduction to natural history</italic> (1st part in 4th grade)</td></tr><tr><td>3rd class – letters and sciences sections (5th and 6th grades)</td><td><italic>Physics and chemistry and introduction to natural history</italic> (2nd part in 4th and 5th grades; only for sciences section)</td></tr><tr><td>1888</td><td>General course (1st to 4th grades)</td><td><italic>Physics, chemistry and natural history</italic> (1st part in 4th grade of general course)</td></tr><tr><td>Letters course (1st to 6th grades)</td><td><italic>Physics, chemistry and natural history</italic> (1st part in 4th grade of letters course)</td></tr><tr><td>Sciences course (1st to 6th grades)</td><td><italic>Physics, chemistry and natural history</italic> (1st part in 4th grade and 2nd part in 5th grade of sciences course)</td></tr><tr><td>1894/1895 Secondary education was extended to 7 years. Reinforcement of the workload of natural sciences</td><td>General course Inferior section (1st, 2nd, 3rd grades) Superior section (4th and 5th grades)</td><td><italic>Elements of natural history, physics and chemistry</italic> (throughout all the course grades) (mineralogy topics in the 4th grade and geology topics in the 5th grade)</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course (6th and 7th grades)</td><td><italic>Physics and chemistry and natural history</italic> (throughout all the course grades) (mineralogy and geology topics only in the 7th grade)</td></tr><tr><td>1905 Letters and sciences sections were created for complementary course</td><td>General course 1st section (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th grades) General course 2nd section (4th and 5th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic> (only for science section) (mineralogy topics in the 4th grade and geology topics in the 3rd and 5th grades)</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course in letters Complementary course in sciences (6th and 7th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic> (only for science section) (mineralogy topics in the 6th and 7th grades and geology topics in the 7th grade)</td></tr><tr><td>1917–1918</td><td>General course, 1st section (1st and 2nd grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic> (without geology topics)</td></tr><tr><td>General course, 2nd section (3rd, 4th and 5th grades)</td><td><italic>Physical and natural sciences</italic> (geology topics only in 4th and 5th grades as preparation for <italic>Geography</italic> in the complementary course)</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course in letters (6th and 7th grades)</td><td><italic>Physical and natural sciences</italic> (essentially a revision of mineralogy and geology from previous grades).</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course in sciences (6th and 7th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic></td></tr><tr><td>1919–1920</td><td>General course, 1st section (1st and 2nd grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic></td></tr><tr><td>General course, 2nd section (3rd, 4th and 5th grades)</td><td><italic>Physical-natural sciences</italic> (mineralogy and geology topics only in 4th and 5th grades)</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course in letters (6th and 7th grades)</td><td>(without natural sciences subject)</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course in sciences (6th and 7th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic> (only in 7th grade)</td></tr><tr><td>1921</td><td>General course, inferior section (1st and 2nd grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic></td></tr><tr><td>General course, medium section (3rd, 4th and 5th grades)</td><td><italic>Physical-natural sciences</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course in letters (6th and 7th grades)</td><td>(without natural sciences subject)</td></tr><tr><td>Complementary course in sciences (6th and 7th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic> (only in 7th grade)</td></tr><tr><td>1926 Secondary education was reduced to 6 years</td><td>Lyceums course, 1st cycle (1st, 2nd and 3rd grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic> (only in 1st and 2nd grades)</td></tr><tr><td>Lyceums course, 2nd cycle section (4th and 5th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Preparatory course in letters (6th grade)</td><td>(without natural sciences subject)</td></tr><tr><td>Preparatory course in sciences (6th grade)</td><td><italic>Geological sciences</italic> Natural sciences in the preparatory science course were split into two different subjects. For the first time, there was an independent subject for geology and another for biology (<italic>Biological sciences</italic>)</td></tr><tr><td>1927 Secondary education was again extended to 7 years</td><td>Lyceums course, 1st cycle (1st, 2nd and 3rd grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic> (only in 1st and 2nd grades)</td></tr><tr><td>Lyceums course, 2nd cycle section (4th and 5th grades)</td><td><italic>Natural sciences</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Preparatory course in letters (6th and 7th grades)</td><td>(without natural sciences subject)</td></tr><tr><td>Preparatory course in sciences (6th and 7th grades)</td><td><italic>Geological sciences</italic></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0188054207-13">Appendix B.</hd> <p>Specimens from the Geological Commissions and Portuguese Geological Survey in the Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School, JCSS historical mineral collection. Numbering and identification as in typed inventory from the 1980s.</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td><bold>Elements</bold></td><td>57</td><td>Flint</td><td><bold>Silicates</bold></td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>Copper</td><td>58</td><td>Jasper</td><td>104</td><td>Olivine</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Silver</td><td>59</td><td>Uraninite</td><td>105</td><td>Andalusite</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Gold</td><td>60</td><td>Cassiterite</td><td>106</td><td>Distene (kyanite)</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Arsenic</td><td>61–63</td><td>Pyrolusite</td><td>107</td><td>Staurolite</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Sulphur</td><td>64</td><td>Psilomelane</td><td>108–110</td><td>Garnet</td></tr><tr><td>6–7</td><td>Graphite</td><td>65</td><td>Manganese ore</td><td>111</td><td>Epidote</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Sulphides and sulfosalts</bold></td><td>66</td><td>Tantalite-columbite</td><td>112</td><td>Tourmaline</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Chalcocite</td><td>67–69</td><td>Goethite</td><td>113</td><td>Beryl</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Sphalerite</td><td><bold>Nitrates</bold></td><td>114</td><td>Vesuvianite</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Chalcopyrite</td><td>70</td><td>Nitratine</td><td>115</td><td>Sillimanite</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Nickeline</td><td><bold>Carbonates</bold></td><td>116–117</td><td>Augite</td></tr><tr><td>11 (?)</td><td>Covellite</td><td>71–75</td><td>Calcite</td><td>118</td><td>Asbestos</td></tr><tr><td>12–17</td><td>Galena</td><td>76–77</td><td>Siderite</td><td>119</td><td>Hornblende</td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>Cinnabar</td><td>78</td><td>Aragonite</td><td>120</td><td>Riebeckite</td></tr><tr><td>19–20</td><td>Stibnite</td><td>79</td><td>Azurite</td><td>121–123</td><td>Talc</td></tr><tr><td>21–24, 26</td><td>Pyrite</td><td>80–81</td><td>Malachite</td><td>124–125</td><td>White mica (muscovite)</td></tr><tr><td>25</td><td>Arsenopyrite</td><td><bold>Sulphates</bold></td><td>126–127</td><td>Black mica (biotite)</td></tr><tr><td>27</td><td>Molybdenite</td><td>82</td><td>Baryte</td><td>128–129</td><td>Lepidolite</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Halides</bold></td><td>83</td><td>Coelestine</td><td>130</td><td>Sericite</td></tr><tr><td>28</td><td>Halite</td><td>84</td><td>Alunite</td><td>131–132</td><td>Kaolinite</td></tr><tr><td>29</td><td>Salammoniac</td><td>85–91</td><td>Gypsum</td><td>133</td><td>Chlorite</td></tr><tr><td>30</td><td>Fluorite</td><td><bold>Tungstates (Wolframates)</bold></td><td>134</td><td>Serpentine</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Oxides and hydroxides</bold></td><td>93</td><td>Wolframite</td><td>135</td><td>Sepiolite</td></tr><tr><td>31</td><td>Cuprite</td><td>94–96</td><td>Scheelite</td><td>136</td><td>Vermiculite</td></tr><tr><td>32–35</td><td>Magnetite</td><td><bold>Phosphates</bold></td><td>137</td><td>Nontronite</td></tr><tr><td>36</td><td>Chromite</td><td>97*</td><td>Amblygonite</td><td>138</td><td>Nepheline</td></tr><tr><td>37–41</td><td>Haematite</td><td>98</td><td>Apatite</td><td>139</td><td>Analcime</td></tr><tr><td>42–51</td><td>Quartz</td><td>99–100</td><td>Phosphorite</td><td>140–141</td><td>Orthoclase</td></tr><tr><td>52</td><td>Opal</td><td>101, 103</td><td>Torbernnite</td></tr><tr><td>53–55</td><td>Agate</td><td>102</td><td>Autunite</td></tr><tr><td>56</td><td>Chalcedony</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>5 * Disappeared specimen.</p> <ref id="AN0188054207-14"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Donald Herbert Hall, <emph>History of the Earth Sciences during the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions, with Special Emphasis on the Physical Geosciences</emph> (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1976).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Anthony Hallam, <emph>Great Geological Controversies</emph> (Oxford: Oxford Science Publications, 1983).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> José Luís Cardoso, "From Natural History to Political Economy: The Enlightened Mission of Domenico Vandelli in the Late Eighteen-century Portugal," <emph>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science</emph> 34 (2003): 781–803.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref4" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Joaquim de Carvalho, <emph>Memória Histórica da Faculdade de Philosophia</emph> (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade, 1872); Martim Portugal Ferreira, "Pioneiros da Mineralogia em Portugal," <emph>Colóquio/Ciência</emph> 10 (1992): 79–98; Martim Portugal Ferreira, <emph>200 anos de Mineralogia e Arte de Minas: Desde a Faculdade de Filosofia (1772) até à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia (1972)</emph> (Coimbra: Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra, 1998); Pedro Miguel Callapez et al., "The Krantz Collections of Palaeontology held at the University of Coimbra (Portugal): A Century of Teaching and Museum Activities," <emph>Historical Biology</emph> 27 (2014): 1113–26; and Pedro Miguel Callapez et al., "Dos Minerais do Iluminismo à Sistemática de Dufrénoy: O Catálogo de 1850 do Museu de História Natural da Universidade de Coimbra," in <emph>Redes Científicas do Iluminismo na Universidade de Coimbra</emph>, ed. Carlota Simões, Ana Cristina Araújo, and Pedro Casaleiro (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 2022), 437.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref5" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Filomena Amador, "O Ensino da Geologia nas Escolas Portuguesas, durante o Século XIX e Primeira Metade do Século XX: Reformas Curriculares e Manuais Escolares," <emph>Terræ Didatica</emph> 3, no. 1 (2008): 6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref6" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Mário de Carvalho, <emph>O Curso Aristotélico Jesuíta Conimbricense</emph> (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 2018), 7, 12.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref7" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Rogério Rocha and José Kullberg, "A Geologia na Toponímia e na História da Cidade de Lisboa," in <emph>4.<sups>as</sups> Jornadas de Toponímia de Lisboa</emph>, ed. 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(Coimbra: Museu Mineralógico e Geológico da Universidade de Coimbra and Centro de Estudos de História e Filosofia da Ciência, 2010), 345–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Joaquim Filipe Nery Delgado, "Les Services Géologiques du Portugal de 1857 á 1899," <emph>Communicações da Commissão da Direção dos Serviços Geologicos de Portugal</emph> 4 (1900–1901): 7–48; Joaquim Filipe Nery Delgado, "Les Services Géologiques du Portugal de 1900 á 1903," <emph>Communicações da Commissão da Direção dos Serviços Geologicos de Portugal</emph> 5 (1904): 9–25; Almeida and Carvalhosa, "Breve História dos Serviços Geológicos em Portugal," 249; Vanda Leitão, "Assentar a Primeira Pedra: As Primeiras Comissões Geológicas Portuguesas (1848–1868)" (PhD diss., Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2004); and Ana Carneiro and Teresa Mota, "The Geological Survey of Portugal (1857–1948): An Overview," <emph>Earth Sciences History</emph> 26, no. 1 (2007): 85–96.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Almeida and Carvalhosa, "Breve História dos Serviços Geológicos em Portugal," 240, 251; and José Rebelo, <emph>As Cartas Geológicas ao Serviço do Desenvolvimento</emph> (Lisboa: Instituto Geológico e Mineiro, 1999).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Leitão, "Assentar a Primeira Pedra," 61–5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> José Manuel Brandão, "Museu Geológico: Lugar de Memórias Históricas e Científicas," in <emph>Actas do I Seminário de investigação em museologia dos países de língua portuguesa e espanhol</emph>a, comp. Alice Semedo and Elisa Noronha Nascimento (Porto: Universidade do Porto/Faculdade de Letras, 2009), 167–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Brandão, "Um Aspecto Particular do Apoio dos Serviços Geológicos Portugueses ao Ensino Secundário das Geociências," 344.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Áurea Adão, "Os Primeiros anos de Ensino Liceal: Realidades e Necessidades," in <emph>Para a História do Ensino Liceal em Portugal – Actas do Colóquio do I Centenário da Reforma de Jaime Moniz 1894</emph>–<emph>1895</emph>, ed. Rogério Fernandes and Justino Magalhães (Braga: Secção de História da Educação da Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação/Universidade do Minho, 1999), 29.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> António Andrade, <emph>A Reforma Pombalina dos Estudos Secundários (1759</emph>–<emph>1771): Contribuição para a História da Pedagogia em Portugal</emph>, vol. 1 (Coimbra: Universidade de Coimbra, 1981).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Joaquim Ferreira Gomes, <emph>A Educação Infantil em Portugal: Achegas para a sua História</emph> (Coimbra: Livraria Almedina, 1977).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> António Maria Martins, Luís António Pardal, and Carlos Dias, "Ensino Técnico e Profissional: Natureza da Oferta e da Procura," <emph>Revista Interações</emph> 1 (2005): 77–97.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Filipe Rocha, <emph>Fins e Objectivos do Sistema Escolar Português de 1820 a 1926</emph> (Aveiro: Livraria Estampa, 1987).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cristina Rocha, "Contribuição do ensino secundário liceal feminino para um modelo de educação pública da mulher: 1880–1940," in <emph>Ciências da Educação em Portugal: Situação Actual e Perspectivas: Actas do I Congresso da Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação</emph>, ed. Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação (Porto: Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação, 1991), 220–1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> António Nóvoa, "A Educação Nacional 1930–1974: análise histórica e historiográfica," in <emph>Los camiños hacia la modernidad educativa en España y Portugal 1800–1975</emph>, ed. Agustín Escolano and Rogério Fernandes (Zamora: Fundación Rei Afonso Henriques, 1997), 176.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Nóvoa, "A Educação Nacional," 177–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ernesto Candeia Martins, "Os Caminhos da Historiografia Educativa Portuguesa: Da História à Educação," <emph>Revista História Da Educação</emph> 8, no. 16 (2004): 25–43.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Carvalho, <emph>História do Ensino em Portugal</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Joaquim Veríssimo Serrão, <emph>História de Portugal</emph>, vol. 7, <emph>Instauração do Liberalismo (1807–1832)</emph> (Lisboa: Editorial Verbo, 1984).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Luís Torgal and Isabel Vargues, "O Liberalismo e a Instrução Pública em Portugal," in <emph>Los camiños hacia la modernidad educativa en España y Portugal 1800–1975</emph>, ed. Agustín Escolano Benito and Rogério Fernandes (Zamora: Fundación Rei Afonso Henriques, 1997), 73.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree of 17 November 1836, Diário do Governo n.° 275, de 19 de novembro.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Adão, "Os Primeiros anos de Ensino Liceal," 31–2; and Tiago Saraiva, "Inventing the Technological Nation: The example of Portugal (1851–1898)," <emph>History and Technology</emph> 23, no. 3 (2007): 263–73.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Circular of 24 October 1836.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 30 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Amador, "O Ensino da Geologia," 7–11.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Law of 12 August 1854, Diário do Governo n.° 196, de 22 de agosto.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gomes, "Instrumentos, Objetos e Coleções," 1216.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree of 20 September 1844, Diário do Governo n.° 220, de 28 de setembro.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree of 10 April 1860, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino. Direção Geral de Instrução Pública, 3.ª Repartição, Diário de Lisboa n.° 85, de 14 de abril.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Maria Cândida Proença, <emph>A Reforma de Jaime Moniz: Antecedentes e Destino Histórico</emph> (Lisboa: Edições Colibri, 1997); Maria Cândida Proença, "O significado histórico-educativo da reforma de Jaime Moniz," in <emph>Para a História do Ensino Liceal em Portugal – Actas do Colóquio do I Centenário da Reforma de Jaime Moniz 1894–1895</emph>, ed. Rogério Fernandes and Justino Magalhães (Braga: Secção de História da Educação da Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciências da Educação/Universidade do Minho, 1999), 39–50; and Jorge Ramos do Ó, "A Reforma de Jaime Moniz (1894–95) e a construção do Ensino Liceal de características modernas em Portugal," <emph>Estudos do Século XX</emph> 6 (2006): 77–93.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Amador, "O Ensino da Geologia," 10; and António Nóvoa, João Barroso, and Jorge Ramos do Ó, "O Todo Poderoso Império do Meio," in <emph>Liceus de Portugal: Histórias, Arquivos, Memórias</emph>, ed. António Nóvoa and Ana Santa-Clara (Porto: ASA, 2003), 17–73.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Brandão, "Um Aspecto Particular do Apoio dos Serviços Geológicos Portugueses ao Ensino Secundário das Geociências," 345.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree 3091 of 17 April 1917, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Secretaria Geral, Diário do Governo, 1ª Série, n.° 60 de 17 de abril.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree 4799 of 8 September 1918, Secretaria de Estado da Instrução Pública – Repartição de Instrução Secundária – 2.ª Secção, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 198, de 12 de setembro.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree 3091 of 17 April 1917, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Secretaria Geral, Diário do Govêrno, 1ª Série, n.° 60 de 17 de abril; and Decree 4799 of 8 September 1918, Secretaria de Estado da Instrução Pública – Repartição de Instrução Secundária – 2.ª Secção, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 198, de 12 de setembro.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree-Law 80/78 of 27 April 1978, Ministério da Educação e Cultura, Diário da República n.° 97/1978, Série I de 27 de abril.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gomes, "Os Museus Escolares de História Natural," 67; and Gomes, "Instrumentos, Objetos e Coleções," 1216.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree 21707 of 6 October 1932, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção dos Serviços do Ensino Secundário – 1.ª Secção. Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 234, de 6 de outubro de 1932.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree-Law 43947 of 4 October 1961, Ministérios do Interior e da Educação Nacional, Diário do Governo, Série I, n.° 231, de 4 de outubro de 1961.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree 15973 of 21 September 1928, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 218, de 21 de setembro de 1928.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree-Law 40827 of 25 October 1956, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Liceal. Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 231, de 25 de outubro de 1956.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree 20369 of 8 October 1931, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Repartição do Ensino Secundário, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 232, de 8 de outubro de 1931; and Decree 20741 of 11 January 1932, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Repartição do Ensino Secundário, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 8, de 11 de janeiro de 1932.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree-Law 27084 of 14 October 1936, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 241, de 14 de outubro, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário; and Decree 27085 of 14 October 1936, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 241, de 14 de outubro, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree 27085 of 14 October 1936, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 241, de 14 de outubro, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree-Law 36507 of 17 September 1947, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Liceal, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 216, de 17 de setembro de 1947; and Decree 37112 of 22 October 1948, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Liceal. Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 247, de 22 de outubro de 1948.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Áurea Adão and Maria José Remédios, "Memória para a Frente, e ... o Resto é Lotaria dos Exames: A Reforma do Ensino Liceal em 1947," <emph>Revista Lusófona de Educação</emph> 12 (2008): 60.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree 39807 of 7 September 1954, Ministério da Educação Nacional, Direcção Geral do Ensino Liceal, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 198, de 7 de setembro de 1954.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Brandão, "Um Aspecto Particular do Apoio dos Serviços Geológicos Portugueses ao Ensino Secundário das Geociências," 343.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Delgado, "Les Services Géologiques du Portugal de 1857 á 1899," <emph>Communicações da Commissão da Direção dos Serviços Geologicos de Portugal</emph> 4 (1900–1901): 7–48; Delgado, "Les Services Géologiques du Portugal de 1900 á 1903," <emph>Communicações da Commissão da Direção dos Serviços Geologicos de Portugal</emph> 5 (1904): 9–25; and Ana Carneiro, "Outside Government Science, 'Not a Single Tiny Bone to Cheer Us Up!' the Geological Survey of Portugal (1857–1908), the Involvement of Common Men, and the Reaction of Civil Society to Geological Research," <emph>Annals of Science</emph> 62, no. 2 (2005): 141–204.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 58 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Paul Léon Choffat, "O Serviço Geológico de Portugal de 1915 a 1917," <emph>Comunicações do Serviço Geológico de Portugal</emph> 12 (1918): 7–33.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Teresa Mota, "A Mere Shadow of an Institution: The Unhappy Story of the Portuguese Geological Survey (PGS) in the Period Between the Two World Wars," <emph>Annals of Science</emph> 64, no. 1 (2007): 19–40.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rebelo, <emph>As Cartas Geológicas</emph>, 5; and Teresa Mota, "Spending Some Time in the Field: Fieldwork in the Portuguese Geological Survey During the Twentieth Century," <emph>Earth Sciences History</emph> 33, no. 2 (2014): 201–13.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Vicente de Souza-Brandão, "Sur un Gisement Remarquable de Riebeckite et le Zircon qui l'accompagne," <emph>Communicações da Commissão do Serviço Geológico de Portugal</emph> 6 (1904–1907): 178–91.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Vicente de Souza-Brandão, "Ueber einen Portugiesischen Alkaligranulit. Centralblatt für Mineralogie," <emph>Geologie und Paläontologie</emph> 2 (1902): 49–55; and Souza-Brandão, "Sur un Gisement Remarquable de Riebeckite et le Zircon qui l'accompagne," <emph>Communicações da Commissão do Serviço Geológico de Portugal</emph> 6 (1904–1907): 178–91.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Paul Ramdohr, <emph>Klockmann's Lehrbuch der Mineralogie</emph>, 14th ed. (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag, 1954).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Roger Walter Le Maitre et al., <emph>Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms</emph>, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 107.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Alfred Lacroix, "La Systématique des Roches Grenues à Plagioclases et Feldspathoïdes," <emph>Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences</emph> 170 (1920): 22, 25.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Alfred Lacroix, "Les Syénites à Riebeckite d'Alter Pedroso (Portugal), leurs Formes Mésocrates (Iusitanites) et leurs Transformations en Leptynites et en Gneiss," <emph>Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences</emph> 163 (1916): 279–83.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Paul Léon Choffat, "Note sur les Vallées Tiphoniques et les Éruptions d'Ophite et de Teschenites en Portugal," <emph>Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 3 éme série</emph> 10 (1882): 267–95.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> José Macpherson, "Descriptions des Roches in Note sur les Vallées Tiphoniques et les Éruptions d'Ophite et de Teschenites en Portugal," <emph>Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 3éme série</emph> 10 (1882): 289–95.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> José Macpherson, "Estudo Petrographico das Ophites e Teschenites de Portugal," <emph>Jornal de Sciencias Mathematicas, Physicas e Naturaes</emph> 10, no. 38 (1884): 85–108.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rebelo, <emph>As Cartas Geológicas</emph>, 3.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Paul Léon Choffat, <emph>Essai sur la Téctonique de la Chaîne de l'Arrabida</emph> (Lisbonne: Commission du Service Géologique du Portugal, 1908).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rebelo, <emph>As Cartas Geológicas</emph>, 4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Decree of 17 November 1836, Diário do Governo n.° 275, de 19 de novembro; Law of 12 August 1854, Diário do Governo n.° 196, de 22 de agosto; Decree of 20 September 1844, Diário do Governo n.° 220, de 28 de setembro; Decree of 10 April 1860, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direção Geral de Instrução Pública, 3.ª Repartição, Diário de Lisboa n.° 85, de 14 de abril; Decree of 9 September 1863, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direção Geral de Instrução Pública, 3.ª Repartição, Diário de Lisboa n.° 204, de 12 de setembro; Decree of 10 September 1863, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direção Geral de Instrução Pública, 2.ª Repartição, Diário de Lisboa n.° 204, de 12 de setembro; Decree of 31 December 1868, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direção Geral de Instrução Pública; Decree of 31 March 1873, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direção Geral de Instrução Pública, 1.ª Repartição, Diário do Governo n.° 77, de 5 de abril; Decree of 14 October 1880, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direção Geral de Instrução Pública, 2.ª Repartição, Diário do Governo n.° 237, de 16 de outubro; Decree of 23 May 1883, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direção Geral de Instrução Pública, 2.ª Repartição, Diário deo Governo n.° 116, de 25 de maio; Decree of 29 July 1886, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Gabineto do Ministro, Diário do Governo n.° 170, de 31 de julho; Decree of 12 August 1886, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direção Geral de Instrução Pública, 2.ª Repartição, Diário do Governo n.° 195, de 30 de agosto; Decree of 20 October 1888, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direção Geral de Instrução Pública, 3.ª Repartição, Diário do Governo n.° 242, de 22 de outubro; Decree 2 of 22 December 1894, Diário do Governo n.° 292, de 24 de dezembro; Decree of 14 August 1895, Direcção geral de instrucção publica- 2.ª repartição, Diário do Governo n.° 183, de 17 de agosto; Decree of 14 September 1895, Ministério dos Negócios do Reino, Direcção geral de instrucção publica, Diário do Governo n.° 208, de 16 de setembro; Decree of 29 August 1905, Ministerio do Reino, Diário do Govêrno n.° 194, de 30 de agosto; Decree of 3 November 1905, Ministério do Reino, Diário do Govêrno n.° 250, de 4 de novembro; Decree 3091 of 17 April 1917, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Secretaria Geral, Diário do Govêrno, 1ª Série, n. ° 60 de 17 de abril; Decree 3592 of 22 November 1917, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Repartição da Instrução Secundária, Diário do Governo, 1ª Série, n.° 204 de 22 de novembro; Decree 4650 of 14 July 1918, Secretaria de Estado da Instrução Pública, Diário do Govêrno, 1ª Série, n°157 de 14 de julho; Decree 4799 of 8 September 1918, Secretaria de Estado da Instrução Pública, Repartição de Instrução Secundária, 2.ª Secção, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 198, de 12 de setembro; Decree 5002 of 27 November 1918, Secretaria de Estado da Instrução Pública, Repartição de Instrução Secundária, Diário do Govêrno, 1ª Série, n.° 257 de 28 de novembro de 1918; Decree 6132 of 26 September 1919, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário, 1.ª Repartição, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 261, 23 de dezembro de 1919; Decree 6316 of 30 December 1919, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário, 1.ª Repartição, Diário do Govêrno, I Série, n.° 266, 30 de dezembro de 1919; Decree 6675 of 12 June 1920, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário, 2.ª Repartição, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 121, de 12 de junho de 1920; Decree 7558 of 18 June 1921, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário, 2.ª Repartição, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 123, de 18 de junho de 1921; Decree 12425 of 2 October 1926, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 220, de 2 de outubro de 1926; Decree 12594 of 2 November 1926, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 245, de 2 de novembro de 1926; Decree 13056 of 22 January 1927, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 18, de 22 de janeiro de 1927; and Decree 15973 of 21 September 1928, Ministério da Instrução Pública, Direcção Geral do Ensino Secundário, Diário do Govêrno, Série I, n.° 218, de 21 de setembro de 1928.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Ricardo Pimentel; Pedro Miguel Callapez; Fernando Barroso-Barcenilla; Senay Ozkaya de Juanas and Vanda Faria dos Santos</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Ricardo Pimentel has taught biology and geology in secondary education for 35 years, trained science teachers, and collaborates with the CITEUC research group at the University of Coimbra, Portugal. He is also a member of the PaleoIbérica research group at the University of Alcalá, Spain.</p> <p>Pedro Miguel Callapez : Professor at the Department of Earth Sciences of the University of Coimbra (UC, Portugal). PhD in Geosciences, and specialist in invertebrate palaeontology, specifically molluscs, and in Cretaceous stratigraphy of Portugal. He has organised numerous international scientific meetings, and currently coordinates the Master of Education in Biology and Geology of the UC.</p> <p>Fernando Barroso-Barcenilla : Professor at the Department of Geology, Geography and Environment of the University of Alcalá (Spain), and Coordinator of the PaleoIbérica Research Group. PhD in Geosciences, and specialist in systematics and biostratigraphy of Mesozoic cephalopods (ammonoids, nautiloids), and in palaeoenvironmental interpretation of Iberian Cretaceous vertebrate sites.</p> <p>Senay Ozkaya de Juanas : Predoctoral Researcher at the University of Alcalá (Spain) and the University of Coimbra (Portugal). Graduate in Primary Education Teaching, with a Master Degree in Advanced Palaeontology. She is currently working on her PhD Thesis on Cretaceous Palaeontological Sites in Spain and Portugal: Strategies and activities for Out-of-school Education.</p> <p>Vanda Faria dos Santos is a palaeontologist with a PhD specialising in the Palaeoichnology of Dinosauria. She served as the curator of the palaeontological collections at the National Museum of Natural History and Science (Portugal). Her primary area of research is vertebrate palaeoichnology, with additional interests in Mesozoic ecosystems, track preservation, and the osteology and function of dinosaur feet and hands.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref75"></nolink>
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  Data: Minerals and Rocks in Portuguese Secondary Education (1890s-1970s): A Historical Overview through a Collection Supplied by the Geological Survey of Portugal
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  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Geology%22">Geology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mineralogy%22">Mineralogy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Education%22">Science Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Museums%22">Museums</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preservation%22">Preservation</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Portugal%22">Portugal</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/00309230.2025.2450225
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0030-9230<br />1477-674X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Despite Portugal's peripheral position in Europe, the Enlightenment successfully introduced Natural History into public education. The inclusion of geology at the University of Coimbra laid the foundation for its integration into secondary schools. Following the Liberal Revolution of 1820, the need to educate the Portuguese population grew, supporting efforts to modernise the country. A decisive step was taken in 1836 with the creation of a national plan for secondary education. From the outset, practical science teaching was emphasised, leading to the establishment of school cabinets and museums. The study of minerals and rocks was incorporated into early secondary curricula, creating a demand for teaching collections. The Geological Survey of Portugal played a crucial role in supplying schools with geological specimens from duplicates of the Geological Museum's collections. A notable example is Dr Joaquim de Carvalho Secondary School in Figueira da Foz (west Portugal), which still houses mineral and rock specimens with their original labels. These collections link to fieldwork for Portugal's first geological map (1:500,000 scale) and early studies in national mineralogy and petrology. Serving pedagogical purposes for decades, they retain significant scientific and historiographical value, bearing witness to the history of Earth sciences in Portuguese secondary education.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1484348
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1484348
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/00309230.2025.2450225
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 25
        StartPage: 718
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational History
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Secondary Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Geology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mineralogy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Science Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Museums
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preservation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Portugal
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Minerals and Rocks in Portuguese Secondary Education (1890s-1970s): A Historical Overview through a Collection Supplied by the Geological Survey of Portugal
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ricardo Pimentel
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Pedro Miguel Callapez
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Fernando Barroso-Barcenilla
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Senay Ozkaya de Juanas
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Vanda Faria dos Santos
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0030-9230
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1477-674X
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 61
            – Type: issue
              Value: 5
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education
              Type: main
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