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School Support, Online Student Engagement, and Academic Achievements during and after the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Survey from China

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Title: School Support, Online Student Engagement, and Academic Achievements during and after the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Survey from China
Language: English
Authors: Lili Chen (ORCID 0000-0002-0549-6012), Jun Li (ORCID 0000-0001-5407-7853), Ying Pan, Sun-Yu Gao (ORCID 0000-0002-3191-584X)
Source: Asia-Pacific Education Researcher. 2025 34(4):1277-1288.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Tests/Questionnaires
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Learner Engagement, Academic Achievement, COVID-19, Pandemics, Foreign Countries, College Students, Electronic Learning, Distance Education, Student Needs
Geographic Terms: China
DOI: 10.1007/s40299-024-00941-3
ISSN: 0119-5646
2243-7908
Abstract: Online student engagement plays a very essential role in the improvement of academic achievements. However, the role of school support in the relationship between online student engagement and academic achievements remain uncertain; whether its impact was different during and after the COVID-19 pandemic is also still being determined. Therefore, the present study conducted a questionnaire survey among 825 Chinese college students during the COVID-19 pandemic and 751 after the COVID-19 pandemic, aiming to examine the correlation between online student engagement and academic achievements, as well as the moderating influence of school support. The results showed that online student engagement had a significant predictive effect on college students' academic achievements during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, school support was found to moderate the relationship between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements only during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results indicated that the more school support the college students received, the stronger the effect of online student engagement on academic achievements during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research results provide empirical evidence for the moderation of school support in the relationship between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1488388
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0186374070;[gchw]01aug.25;2025Jul07.03:43;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0186374070-1">School Support, Online Student Engagement, and Academic Achievements During and After the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Survey from China </title> <p>Online student engagement plays a very essential role in the improvement of academic achievements. However, the role of school support in the relationship between online student engagement and academic achievements remain uncertain; whether its impact was different during and after the COVID-19 pandemic is also still being determined. Therefore, the present study conducted a questionnaire survey among 825 Chinese college students during the COVID-19 pandemic and 751 after the COVID-19 pandemic, aiming to examine the correlation between online student engagement and academic achievements, as well as the moderating influence of school support. The results showed that online student engagement had a significant predictive effect on college students' academic achievements during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, school support was found to moderate the relationship between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements only during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results indicated that the more school support the college students received, the stronger the effect of online student engagement on academic achievements during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research results provide empirical evidence for the moderation of school support in the relationship between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements.</p> <p>Keywords: School support; Online student engagement; Academic achievements; COVID-19 pandemic; Education Specialist Studies In Education</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-2">Introduction</hd> <p>The COVID-19 pandemic caused the shutting down of educational organizations globally (Adedoyin & Soykan, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]), which affected more than 70% of students worldwide (UNESCO, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref2">50</reflink>]). During the COVID-19 pandemic, China applied online learning to maintain and promote learning activities to reduce the influences of school closure and the virus expansion (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref3">53</reflink>]). However, severe worries about the quality of online learning also emerged (Caskurlu et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref4">5</reflink>]). Some researchers pointed out that the quality of academic achievements of online learning depends on the success of the implementation of online learning (Panigrahi et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref5">38</reflink>]). Academic achievements of college students are actually comprehensive qualities and capabilities, referring to the comprehensive development they acquired during studying and living in college, including learning recognition, communication, self-management, and interpersonal relations. Among the above-mentioned factors, interpersonal relations refers to college students' abilities of team working, coordinating and establishing active interpersonal relationships in study and life; learning recognition indicates the abilities of processing, understanding and flexibly applying information; communication means the abilities of correct personal thoughts convey and effective interpretation of others' feedback; self-management is the process of goals realization through self-regulation (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref6">29</reflink>]). Academic achievements is closely related to some personal and external environmental factors (Chen & Huang, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>]; Zysberg & Schwabsky, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref8">60</reflink>]). Online student engagement is an essential factor influencing academic achievements as a personal factor; the more online student engagement, the better the academic achievements of online learning (Zapata-Cuervo et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref9">58</reflink>]). The school closure caused by the COVID-19 outbreak brought more challenges to academic achievements since the online learning environment would influence students' learning inputs (Azevedo et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref10">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Some researchers indicated that as a chronic disease with a high infection rate and repeated outbreaks, COVID-19 severely threatened people's lives in many aspects (Voitsidis et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref11">51</reflink>]). Researcher noted that uncertainties like fast spreading and virus immune escape would still exist (Song & Karako, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref12">44</reflink>]). Even though face-to-face learning modes are mainly used in higher education organizations after the COVID-19 pandemic, valuable experiences and practices developed during the pandemic are suggested to be maintained (IESALC-UNESCO, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref13">22</reflink>]), such as online learning. In order to further promote the development and open sharing of high-quality online resources, the Ministry of Education of China selected and released about 1,000 online courses in 2023 (Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref14">32</reflink>]). China has the most extensive online users worldwide, which are 519 thousand schools, 18.8 million teachers, and 293 million students at schools and social learning organizations (Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref15">33</reflink>]). Therefore, online learning after the COVID-19 pandemic is also important for Chinese students.</p> <p>The past researches showed online learning engagement significantly improved academic achievements (Zapata-Cuervo et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref16">58</reflink>]). However, it was left to be further explored whether there were differences in the influences of online learning engagement on academic achievements during and after COVID-19 pandemic. Besides, some studies found that when the students felt more school supports, their online learning engagement would higher (Chen & Huang, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref17">7</reflink>]) and their academic achievements would be more positive (Burns et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref18">4</reflink>]). However, there was not any investigation at present to study the moderation of school support between online learning engagement and academic achievements and if there was any difference during and after COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, this study carried on researches on Chinese college students to discuss the relationship between online learning engagement and academic achievements during and after COVID-19 pandemic and to explore how the changes of school supports moderation between them in two periods could remedy the defects.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-3">Relationship Between Online Student Engagement and Academic Achievements</hd> <p>Online student engagement indicates students' input activities in electronic learning environments, mainly presented in students' engagement in time, energy, value or interests, attitude, learning strategies, and even creativity, triggering learning motivation and action (Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref19">54</reflink>]). Research has found that online student engagement is also related to a series of good learning performances, such as satisfactory learning achievements (You, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref20">55</reflink>]) and learning satisfaction (Martin & Bolliger, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref21">31</reflink>]). Self-determination theory (SDT) explains the importance of online student engagement (Chiu, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref22">8</reflink>]). Academic achievements depend on the critical role of online student engagement (Martin & Bolliger, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref23">31</reflink>]; You, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref24">55</reflink>]), with deeper online learning engagement correlating to better academic achievements (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref25">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>During the COVID-19 pandemic, online learning modes widely spread worldwide and were commonly applied by college students from various countries (You, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref26">55</reflink>]). The research results from different countries and areas during the COVID-19 pandemic came to similar results that the increase in online student engagement would significantly improve students' academic achievements (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref27">52</reflink>]; You, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref28">55</reflink>]; Zapata-Cuervo et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref29">58</reflink>]). You ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref30">55</reflink>]) indicated that online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic could effectively promote interactions between teachers and students through the Internet, while a low engagement rate of online learning would influence the quality of academic achievements, which largely depended on students' online student engagement. Another research conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic in the U.S.A., South Korea, and Columbia found that college students' online student engagement had a significantly positive influence on academic achievements (Zapata-Cuervo et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref31">58</reflink>]). The online investigation from Wang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref32">52</reflink>]) focusing on 248 Chinese respondents proved that learning engagement directly and positively affected academic achievements.</p> <p>Traditional face-to-face learning modes have been recovered in universities from various countries post-pandemic. Traditional face-to-face learning can better promote interpersonal interactions among students and teachers than online learning, reducing distraction (Imran et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref33">23</reflink>]) and achieving better learning effects (Zapata-Cuervo et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref34">58</reflink>]). Due to the irresistible limitations of online learning modes, such as lower interaction quality (Dumford & Miller, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref35">12</reflink>]), traditional face-to-face learning modes remain the first choice of various colleges (Imran et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref36">23</reflink>]); therefore, college students' online student engagement may be reduced after the restoration of traditional face-to-face learning modes.</p> <p>However, due to much uncertainty in the post-pandemic era, online learning remains the researchers' focus (Huh et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref37">21</reflink>]; Jamilah & Fahyuni, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref38">24</reflink>]; Rashid & Yadav, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref39">41</reflink>]). Rashid and Yadav ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref40">41</reflink>]) highlighted that even after the pandemic, when college students returned to traditional learning modes, online learning should continue to be one of the most essential parts of future college students' learning. Some researchers suggested that learning modes combining traditional and online learning should be positively applied (Huh et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref41">21</reflink>]). Jamilah and Fahyuni ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref42">24</reflink>]) noted that students should not abandon online learning modes, considering that digital literacy would be critical when facing future challenges. One current research revealed that modified online flipped classes could help students in their online engagement to reach better academic achievements (Jia et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref43">25</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-4">Moderating Effect of School Support</hd> <p>School support refers to the emotional support and positive guidance students gain from teachers and their peers in schools, mainly consisting of teacher support and classmate support (Thoits, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref44">47</reflink>]). School support could improve students' academic performance Researchers have demonstrated that students make positive academic achievements during the COVID-19 pandemic (Yu et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref45">56</reflink>]). According to SDT, individuals tend to positively join in activities and environments that could satisfy their mental needs, the interaction between individuals and environments can generate inner motivation, outer motivation, and motiveless status (Deci & Ryan, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref46">9</reflink>]; Ryan & Deci, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref47">42</reflink>]). School support could raise individuals' online student engagement (Chen & Huang, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref48">7</reflink>]) and motivate students' inner and outer learning motivations (Deci & Ryan, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref49">10</reflink>]). Past research has shown that when students are immersed in a high-level school support environment, the decline in students' cognitive engagement is usually not significant (Moreira & Lee, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref50">35</reflink>]). Kiefer et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref51">26</reflink>]) pointed out that classmate support would profoundly influence students learning engagement. When students gain support from their peers, they can be more confident in studying; when getting less support from their peers, they may feel more fear of finishing learning tasks, which causes learning engagement reduction (Shin & Chang, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref52">43</reflink>]). It is noteworthy that Han and Bridglall ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref53">18</reflink>]) researched overall school support in primary schools, with the results that school support played wide-ranging roles in promoting English language learners' academic achievements; more school support related to faster English learning progress. Identical results have also been found that students who perceive more school support tend to make positive academic achievements (Burns et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref54">4</reflink>]).</p> <p>Past research has indicated that school support usually acts as a moderator. Chen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref55">6</reflink>]) conducted a questionnaire among 577 teenagers from Shanghai, China. They found that school support enhanced the relationships between community support and activity engagement, family support, and emotional engagement. Despoti et al. ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref56">11</reflink>]) showed that school support reduced the influence of narcissism on teenagers' bullying. Based on the discussion above, during the COVID-19 pandemic, students' online student engagement may be influenced, posing significant challenges to their academic achievements. While studies have shown the influence of online student engagement on academic achievements, there are a lack of research examining the moderating role of school support in this impact. Furthermore, very few studies compare the effects of school support in this relationship during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-5">Present Study</hd> <p>According to the above-mentioned studies, the COVID-19 pandemic significantly challenged colleges and their students. Even though the predictive effects of online student engagement on academic achievements have been verified, most studies only explained the predictive effects of online student engagement rather than thoroughly analyzing the moderating factors that influence the variables. Moreover, throughout the COVID-19 epidemic, the mindset and behavior of individuals differed based on their respective living conditions. The roles that school support plays in the relationship between online student engagement and academic achievements during and after the pandemic remain to be determined. Hence, this study utilized online student engagement, school support, and academic achievement scales to examine the interrelationships among these factors among Chinese college students engaged in online learning during and after the COVID-19 epidemic.</p> <p>The following hypotheses were put forward:</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-6">Hypothesis 1:</hd> <p>Online student engagement significantly predicts college students' academic achievements during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, with the predictive effect being different during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-7">Hypothesis 2:</hd> <p>School support moderates the relationships between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements, with the moderation effect being different during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-8">Materials and Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186374070-9">Research Context</hd> <p>The present study focused on the moderation of school support in the relationship between online student engagement and the academic achievements of college students who participate in online learning. Hainan province of China paid high attention to online courses, established the Hainan Colleges courses sharing alliance, and developed an online course website in 2016 (The Education Department of Hainan Province, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref57">46</reflink>]). The website is operated stably and maturely, providing a platform for initiating online courses by colleges and choosing courses for college students. After COVID-19, real-life teaching activities were resumed; however, college teachers continued to apply the advantages of online teaching by adopting blending teaching models. This study explored how the transition of teaching models (from large-scale real-life to large-scale online to large-scale blending) influenced the improvement of Hainan college students' academic achievements in special time background.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-10">Participants</hd> <p>The participants consisted of the college students in Hainan province, during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the online questionnaire was distributed on the Questionnaire Star, a survey platform in China equivalent to SurveyMonkey. Chinese researchers mainly employ Questionnaire Star to conduct questionnaire surveys (Chen & Huang, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref58">7</reflink>]; Yu et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref59">57</reflink>]) since it is common, convenient, and suitable for collecting data in China. After the COVID-19 pandemic (in March 2023), the present study continued and required the same participants (recruited the same way) to finish the questionnaire from the same platform.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-11">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186374070-12">Online Student Engagement</hd> <p>Sun and Rueda ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref60">45</reflink>]) revised the remote learning engagement scale, which consisted of three dimensions: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement (referring to Appendix 1 for 14 items). It was scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 representing "strongly disagree" and 5 representing "strongly agree." Higher total scores indicated higher online student engagement levels.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-13">School Support</hd> <p>Torsheim et al. ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref61">49</reflink>]) compiled a school support scale, which was considered suitable for evaluating school support. The scale consisted of two dimensions: teacher and classmate support (referring to Appendix 2 for eight items). It was scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 representing "totally fit" and 5 representing "totally unfit." The former empirical studies mostly adopted subscales or indexes relating with support resources like teacher support and peer support to measure how much college students could feel school support, which all received good reliability and validity (Moreira & Lee, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref62">35</reflink>]; Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref63">59</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-14">Academic Achievements</hd> <p>Li et al. ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref64">29</reflink>]) complied with the college students' academic achievements scale, which covers four dimensions: learning recognition, communication, self-management, and interpersonal promotion. It was scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating "totally unfit" and 5 indicating "totally fit" (referring to Appendix 3 for 14 items). This scale was often used in prior empirical studies about Chinese college students' academic achievements, showing ideal reliability (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref65">28</reflink>]). There were many indexes of the learners' learning outcomes, but former researches paid more attention on academic achievements (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref66">52</reflink>]), considering academic achievements as the representative of learning outcomes (Adi Sucipto et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref67">2</reflink>]; Nabizadeh et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref68">37</reflink>]). Moreover, the studies on online learning also regarded the academic achievements as the reflection of learning outcomes (Chen & Huang, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref69">7</reflink>]; Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref70">28</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-15">Data Collection</hd> <p>The program was approved by the Ethics Committee of the author's college (Program No. HGS-2022-05, HGS-2023-03). We have told the participants the researching goals, process, estimated answering time, anonymity, and confidentiality. The participants were informed that they enjoy the right to quit the current study without taking any consequences. The participants needed to sign agreements before answering the questionnaires showing their willingness to attend.</p> <p>A total of 856 questionnaires were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic (Sample 1). The average response time for the questionnaires was 9.3 min, and the remaining valid data totaled 825 after eliminating questions with response times that were too short or too long.</p> <p>A total of 789 questionnaires were collected after the COVID-19 pandemic (Sample 2). The average response time for the questionnaires was 9.3 min, and the remaining valid data totaled 751 after eliminating short or long response times. Detailed demographic characteristics of the samples are listed in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the samples</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>Sample 1</p></th><th align="left"><p>Sample 2</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Male</p></td><td align="left"><p>314</p></td><td align="left"><p>359</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Female</p></td><td align="left"><p>511</p></td><td align="left"><p>392</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Only child</p></td><td align="left"><p>158</p></td><td align="left"><p>154</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Non-only child</p></td><td align="left"><p>667</p></td><td align="left"><p>597</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>City origin</p></td><td align="left"><p>298</p></td><td align="left"><p>267</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Rural origin</p></td><td align="left"><p>527</p></td><td align="left"><p>484</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0186374070-16">Procedure and Data Analysis</hd> <p>There were five parts to the questionnaire. The first part was the informed consent form, with which the participants agreed to continue the following parts. The second part was the background variable, which included gender, only/non-only child status, and origin places of students. Parts 3 to 5 were the scales applied in the present study. Online questionnaires were conducted by sending relevant links to the participants in WeChat and QQ chat groups with the help of college counselors.</p> <p>SPSS 22.0 was used for the data analysis, descriptive statistics, and correlation analysis in the present study. Model 1 in Process 3.5 was adopted to test the moderation of school support between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements. The 95% bootstrapped confidence interval (CI), with a sample size set at 5000, was used to revalidate the moderation of school support.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-17">Results</hd> <p>Harman's one-factor test was applied in the present study to examine different data collected during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. After unrotated factor analysis, the data results from the pandemic indicated that KMO = 0.922, the Bartlett test of sphericity reached significance (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001), with altogether eight factors with eigenvalues larger than 1, and the variance explained of the first factor was 28.952%. The data results after the pandemic showed that KMO = 0.936, the Bartlett test of sphericity reached significance (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001), with eight factors with eigenvalues larger than 1, and the variance explained of the first factor was 33.625%. Hence, there would not be any severe common method bias in the present study.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-18">Preliminary Analysis</hd> <p>The correlation analysis results indicated that during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, there were significantly positive correlations among online student engagement, school support, and academic achievements (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001). The correlation coefficients ranged from 0.349 to 0.588 (see Tables 2, 3). Hence, there would not be any severe collinearity problem in the present study.</p> <p>Table 2 Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis during COVID-19 pandemic</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>M</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>Online student engagement</p></th><th align="left"><p>School support</p></th><th align="left"><p>Academic achievements</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Online student engagement</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.571</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.521</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>School support</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.761</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.578</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.349***</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Academic achievements</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.615</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.515</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.515***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.410***</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>***<emph>p</emph> < 0.001</p> <p>Table 3 Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis after COVID-19 pandemic</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>M</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>Online student engagement</p></th><th align="left"><p>School support</p></th><th align="left"><p>Academic achievements</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Online student engagement</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.723</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.495</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>School support</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.943</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.587</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.469***</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Academic achievements</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.788</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.508</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.588***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.538***</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>***<emph>p</emph> < 0.001</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-19">Predictive Effect of Online Student Engagement on Academic Achievements</hd> <p>Besides, this study explored the relationship between online learning engagement (the predictor variable) and college students' academic achievements (the outcome variable) after controlling for gender, only/non-only child status, and origin places of students. The results showed that online learning engagement was a significant positive predictor of college students' academic achievements during the COVID-19 pandemic (<emph>B</emph> = 0.448, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and after the COVID-19 pandemic (<emph>B</emph> = 0.507, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). This result partially validated Hypothesis 1: Online student engagement significantly predicted college students' academic achievements during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. This relationship was not affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-20">Moderating Effect of School Support</hd> <p>As was indicated in Table 4, college students' online student engagement (<emph>B</emph> = 0.362, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and school support (<emph>B</emph> = 0.244, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) positively predict their academic achievements during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results showed that the more online student engagement was, the higher the school support and the better the academic achievements. The interaction term between online student engagement and school support significantly positively impacted academic achievements (<emph>B</emph> = 0.132, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01), which partially validated hypothesis 2 in the present: School support moderated the relationships between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements.</p> <p>Table 4 School support's moderation during COVID-19 pandemic</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Academic achievements</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>SE</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Bootstrap 95% CI</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Lower</p></th><th align="left"><p>Upper</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Constant</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.568</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.023</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.527</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.609</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.003</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.031</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.062</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.067</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Only/non-only child status</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.058</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.040</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.028</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.138</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>The origin places of students</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.059</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.033</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.004</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.122</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Online student engagement</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.362</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.027</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.286</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.433</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>School support</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.244</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.031</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.173</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.315</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Online student engagement × school support</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.132</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.045</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.018</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.250</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="4"><p>0.339</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="4"><p>70.002***</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>***<emph>p</emph> < 0.001; bootstrapping random sampling 5000 times. The model coded the variables of population statistics as dummy variables ,while girls, non-single child, and rural origin as reference groups</p> <p>Furthermore, simple slope analysis was employed to verify the influential differences of school support in varying degrees and its moderation between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements during COVID-19 pandemic (Fig. 1). It was observed that the predictive effect was stronger from online student engagement to academic achievements (<emph>B</emph> = 0.431, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) among college students with more school support, the predictive effect became lower (<emph>B</emph> = 0.293, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, B declining from 0.431 to 0.293) among college students with less school support.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 The simple slope chart of school support during COVID-19 pandemic</p> <p>The same analysis was also adopted to verify the moderation of school support after the COVID-19 pandemic. The results in Table 5 showed that online student engagement (<emph>B</emph> = 0.364, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and school support (<emph>B</emph> = 0.345, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) both significantly positively predicted college students' academic achievements. However, no significant predictive effect was observed in the interaction term between online student engagement and school support to academic achievements (<emph>B</emph> = 0.088, <emph>p</emph> > 0.05). The results indicated that after the COVID-19 pandemic, school support positively predicted college students' academic rather than moderating the relationship between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements, which partially verified hypothesis 2: the moderation effect was different during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.</p> <p>Table 5 School support's moderation after COVID-19 pandemic</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Variables</p></th><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Academic achievements</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>B</p></th><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>SE</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Bootstrap 95% CI</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Lower</p></th><th align="left"><p>Upper</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Constant</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.801</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.023</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.758</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.843</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.066</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.029</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.121</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.011</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Only/non-only child status</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.002</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.037</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.074</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.080</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>The origin places of students</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.015</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.031</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.047</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.079</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Online student engagement</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.364</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.027</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.301</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.428</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>School support</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.345</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.032</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.277</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.409</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Online student engagement × school support</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.088</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.042</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.001</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.176</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="4"><p>0.441</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="4"><p>97.704***</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>***<emph>p</emph> <.001; bootstrapping random sampling 5,000 times. The model coded the variables of population statistics as dummy variables, while girls, non-single child and rural origin as reference groups</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-21">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186374070-22">Relationship Between Online Student Engagement and Academic Achievements</hd> <p>In the past research, online student engagement has been found to predict academic achievements positively (Jia et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref71">25</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref72">52</reflink>]; You, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref73">55</reflink>]; Zapata-Cuervo et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref74">58</reflink>]). Similar results were also gained in the present study, which showed that online student engagement exerted significantly positive influences on college students' academic achievements during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, consistent with previous studies (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref75">52</reflink>]). It indicated that no matter whether during or after the COVID-19 pandemic, online student engagement remained an influential predictive factor in academic achievements (Martin & Bolliger, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref76">31</reflink>]). The possible reasons may lie in the following. First, online learning is irreplaceable in colleges for its convenience and easy access during or after the COVID-19 pandemic. College students nowadays are commonly indulged in network technological learning environments; adopting online learning modes during or after the COVID-19 pandemic is not strange. Students with more online engagement would spend more time and energy working on studying strategies (Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref77">54</reflink>]), use online education technology, and allocate studying time more scientifically, thus improving their learning effectiveness and academic achievements. Second, online student engagement can help students apply what is acquired from online learning to practical occasions (Hu & Li, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref78">20</reflink>]) and master new knowledge solidly and repeatedly in various situations without limitations of teaching places to improve their academic achievements.</p> <p>The comprehensive abilities of generic skills like learning cognition, communications, self-management, and interpersonal relationship, which were of vital importance to their future career and personal development, could be improved through rising students' online student engagement. For example, students with higher learning engagement usually participate more actively in online discussions, forum communications and team cooperation, which help strengthening their communication skills and confidence (Hrastinski, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref79">19</reflink>]). Highly engaged online learning environment provides more interactive chances for teachers and students, promoting the development of interpersonal relationship ability. Group discussions, coordinating projects, forum communications, etc. in online courses could strengthen students' teamwork spirit and ability, helping them learning how to collaborate with others in virtual circumstances (Kuh, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref80">27</reflink>]). Students with more active engagement are easier to take part in peer support network, which therefore improves their social skills and emotional support abilities (Tinto, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref81">48</reflink>]). Besides, students' online student engagement directly influences their developments of self-management and cognition. Students with higher learning input usually manage their own learning process more actively, showing stronger self-adjustment capability (Fredrickset al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref82">13</reflink>]). And they are much better at applying advanced cognition strategies like critical thoughts and problem-solving ability, then enhancing their analyzing and concluding abilities (Pintrich, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref83">39</reflink>]). Therefore, online student engagement remains the influential predictive factor to academic achievements during and after the COVID-19 pandemic and improving college students' online student engagement can help promote academic achievements.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-23">Moderating Effect of School Support</hd> <p>It was discovered that school support did moderate the relationship between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements during the COVID-19 pandemic. The predictive effect of online student engagement on academic achievements was stronger on those college students with more school support than those with less.</p> <p>It may be because students' learning attitude toward online learning originated from the support they gained from teachers and classmates when in extraordinary conditions like the COVID-19 pandemic (Mushtaque et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref84">36</reflink>]). The higher the support perceived, the better the learning attitude was, leading to more positive academic achievements. When students receive high school support, their cognitive engagement rises (Moreira & Lee, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref85">35</reflink>]). Online student engagement decreases when classmate support is lowered (Shin & Chang, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref86">43</reflink>]). The results of the research also support the self-decision theory, emphasizing that the interaction of personal factors (online student engagement) and environmental factors (school support) can generate inner motivation (academic achievements).</p> <p>It was found that school support did not moderate between online student engagement and academic achievements after the COVID-19 pandemic. The reason for these results may lie in the following. The learning modes were deeply affected during the COVID-19 pandemic, and regular school and class learning was interrupted unprecedentedly, without any preparation for online courses for the teachers and students (Ge, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref87">15</reflink>]). After the COVID-19 pandemic, higher education organizations worldwide resumed traditional face-to-face studying (González et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref88">17</reflink>]). Although the traditional face-to-face learning modes will continue to be the dominant form of educational experience, higher education institutions will need to maintain some of the experiential practices developed during the pandemic experiences (IESALC-UNESCO, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref89">22</reflink>]), like online learning. Teachers and students took online courses during the COVID-19 pandemic and got better preparation. Hence, even though school support greatly influenced college students' academic achievements in a stable environment after the COVID-19 pandemic, it could not moderate the relationship between online student engagement and academic achievements.</p> <p>The innovation and development of the education field could be fully understood through comparing the online learning during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, which could reveal the adaptability and sustainability of online learning as an education mode and how it affected students' study.</p> <p>First of all, the enforcement of online learning during COVID-19 pandemic provided unique experimenting fields for its fast development and adoption. This sudden shift forced the colleges, teachers, and students to face challenges in the process of adapting online learning (Mishra et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref90">34</reflink>]) and conquering the challenges could realize its effectiveness and efficiency. Secondly, as the education came back to its normal stage after COVID-19 pandemic, the mixed learning modes of online and offline would probably be the best choice. So in these circumstances, studying the importance of online learning was not just for its supplementary role; face-to-face learning and online learning could be combined skillfully (García-Morales et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref91">14</reflink>]) in colleges to create more flexible and inclusive educational environment. Thirdly, comparing the online learning during and after COVID-19 pandemic could reveal how the attitudes and preferences of the learners and educators changed with time. For example, some learners may find they preferred the flexible online learning while others may consider they could benefit more from face-to-face interactions (Gherheş et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref92">16</reflink>]). The last but not the least, this study could offer valuable experience and strategies for possible similar crisis in future, helping education departments to be capable of settling emergencies and crisis in future. After COVID-19 pandemic, colleges should take effective measures to develop online courses (Mishra et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref93">34</reflink>]) to make sure the continuity and quality of the education. Therefore, comparing the changes of online learning during and after COVID-19 pandemic not only helps understanding its innovation and development, but also is of significant importance in optimizing future education modes and improving education quality.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-24">Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>There are some limitations in the present study. Firstly, we only recruited anonymous participants to take in the survey, and the collection of the participants' data could not be strictly matched in comparison and longitudinal studies; therefore, its results only represented groups' characteristics rather than individuals,' limiting the results' generality. Secondly, the academic achievement scale adopted in this study would probably be affected by the students' subjective factors, so students' grades could used to measure their academic achievements in future studies (Madigan & Curran, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref94">30</reflink>]). Thirdly, all data in this study was collected through personal reports from one-time-only questionnaires, which may cause common method bias. Therefore, temporal separation of measurement could be adopted in future study (Podsakoff et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref95">40</reflink>]), which means data collection could be conducted in different time points, such as collecting predictive variable (online student engagement) and moderator variable (school support) at the first time period and collecting dependent variable (academic achievements) at the second time period, so as to reduce the influence of common method bias.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-25">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>We sincerely thank all participants for their valuable contributions to this study. We also extend our gratitude to our collaborators for their support and expertise.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-26">Author Contributions</hd> <p>LC and JL drafted the manuscript. SG served as the research advisor. LC, JL, YP, and SG contributed significantly to the conception, the data analysis, and manuscript revision. LC collected the data.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-27">Funding</hd> <p>This study received no funding.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-28">Data availability</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-29">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186374070-30">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-31">Ethical Approval</hd> <p>All procedures performed in the present study involving participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee of Hainan Technology and Business College (Program No. HGS-2022-05, HGS-2023-03).</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-32">Consent to Participate</hd> <p>All participants agreed to participate in this survey.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-33">Consent for Publication</hd> <p>All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.</p> <hd id="AN0186374070-34">Appendix 1: Online Student Engagement Scale</hd> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Dimension</p></th><th align="left"><p>Number</p></th><th align="left"><p>Item</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Behavioral engagement</p></td><td align="left"><p>BE1</p></td><td align="left"><p>I follow the rules of the online class</p><p>我遵守线上课程的纪律。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>BE2</p></td><td align="left"><p>I complete my homework on time</p><p>我按时完成作业。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>BE3</p></td><td align="left"><p>I check my schoolwork for mistakes</p><p>我认真检查作业是否有误。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="6"><p>Emotional engagement</p></td><td align="left"><p>EE1</p></td><td align="left"><p>I like taking the online class</p><p>我喜欢上线上课程。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>EE2</p></td><td align="left"><p>I feel excited by my work at the online class</p><p>上线上课程时我很兴奋。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>EE3</p></td><td align="left"><p>The online classroom is a fun place to be</p><p>线上课程很有趣。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>EE4</p></td><td align="left"><p>I am interested in the work at the online class</p><p>我对线上课程的内容很感兴趣。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>EE5</p></td><td align="left"><p>I feel happy when taking online class</p><p>上线上课程让我开心。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>EE6</p></td><td align="left"><p>I talk with people outside of school about what I am learning in the online class</p><p>我会跟校外的朋友谈论我在线上课程的所学到的东西。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="5"><p>Cognitive engagement</p></td><td align="left"><p>CE1</p></td><td align="left"><p>I study at home even when I do not have a test</p><p>即使没有考试, 我也是在家自学。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CE2</p></td><td align="left"><p>I try to look for some course-related information on other resources, such as television, journal papers, and magazines</p><p>我尽力在电视、周刊、杂志等资源上寻找课程相关的资料。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CE3</p></td><td align="left"><p>When I read the course materials, I ask myself questions to make sure I understand what it is about</p><p>当我阅读课程材料时, 我都会采用自问自答的方式确保自己对课程内容的理解。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CE4</p></td><td align="left"><p>I read extra materials to learn more about things we do in the online class</p><p>我会结合线上课程内容, 多阅读相关课外材料。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CE5</p></td><td align="left"><p>If I do not know about a concept when I am learning in the online class, I do something to figure it out</p><p>在线上课程入到不明白的概念问题, 我会努力弄明白。</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0186374070-35">Appendix 2: School Support Scale</hd> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Dimension</p></th><th align="left"><p>Number</p></th><th align="left"><p>Item</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="4"><p>Teacher support</p></td><td align="left"><p>TS1</p></td><td align="left"><p>Our teachers treat us fairly</p><p>老师们对待我们很公平。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>TS2</p></td><td align="left"><p>When I need extra help, I can get it</p><p>当我需要额外的帮助时, 老师会伸出援手。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>TS3</p></td><td align="left"><p>My teachers are interested in me as a person</p><p>老师对我的为人很感兴趣。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>TS4</p></td><td align="left"><p>Our teachers are nice and friendly</p><p>我的老师们很友好。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="4"><p>Classmate support</p></td><td align="left"><p>CS1</p></td><td align="left"><p>The students in my class enjoy being together</p><p>我班上的同学们很喜欢待在一起。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CS2</p></td><td align="left"><p>Most of the students in my class are kind and helpful</p><p>我班上大部分的同学都很友好且乐于助人。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CS3</p></td><td align="left"><p>Other students accept me as I am</p><p>其他同学接受我的真性情。</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CS4</p></td><td align="left"><p>When a classmate is upset, other students comfort him/her</p><p>如有同学不开心了, 其他同学都会来安慰他/她。</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0186374070-36">Appendix 3: Academic Achievement Scale</hd> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Dimension</p></th><th align="left"><p>Number</p></th><th align="left"><p>Item</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Learning recognition</p></td><td align="left"><p>LR1</p></td><td align="left"><p>我可以灵活运用所学知识。</p><p>I can make use of what I've learnt freely</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>LR2</p></td><td align="left"><p>我能迅速抓住解决问题的关键。</p><p>I could quickly get the key points of the solutions</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>LR3</p></td><td align="left"><p>我总是能够很快理解新知识, 新技能。</p><p>I could always understand new knowledge and skills quickly</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Communication</p></td><td align="left"><p>CN1</p></td><td align="left"><p>我能清楚地与人交流。</p><p>I could communicate with others clearly</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CN2</p></td><td align="left"><p>我善于倾听, 不喜欢打断别人。</p><p>I am willing to listening but interrupting others</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CN3</p></td><td align="left"><p>我害怕与别人面对面交流。</p><p>I'm afraid of communicating with others face to face</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Self-management</p></td><td align="left"><p>SM1</p></td><td align="left"><p>不管什么计划不计划的, 我想学习的时候才学习。</p><p>I study when I'd love to regardless of plans</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>SM2</p></td><td align="left"><p>谈不上什么目标不目标, 一切顺其自然。</p><p>Let everything with the flow and don't talking about goals</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>SM3</p></td><td align="left"><p>我经常会因为偷懒而耽误计划。</p><p>I always hold up plans because of laziness</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="5"><p>Interpersonal promotion</p></td><td align="left"><p>IP1</p></td><td align="left"><p>我总是主动给予其他同学帮助。</p><p>I always willing to offer help to other classmates</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>IP2</p></td><td align="left"><p>我能够很好地关心体贴其他同学。</p><p>I could take good care of other classmates</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>IP3</p></td><td align="left"><p>在不同的场合, 我能够很好地约束自己的行为。</p><p>I could restrict my own behavior on different occasions</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>IP4</p></td><td align="left"><p>我能够与其他同学很好的合作。</p><p>I could cooperate well with other classmates</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>IP5</p></td><td align="left"><p>我能够与其他人相处融洽。</p><p>I could get along well with others</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0186374070-37">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0186374070-38"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Adedoyin OB, Soykan E. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: School Support, Online Student Engagement, and Academic Achievements during and after the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Survey from China
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lili+Chen%22">Lili Chen</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0549-6012">0000-0002-0549-6012</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jun+Li%22">Jun Li</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5407-7853">0000-0001-5407-7853</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ying+Pan%22">Ying Pan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sun-Yu+Gao%22">Sun-Yu Gao</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3191-584X">0000-0002-3191-584X</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Asia-Pacific+Education+Researcher%22"><i>Asia-Pacific Education Researcher</i></searchLink>. 2025 34(4):1277-1288.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 12
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research<br />Tests/Questionnaires
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learner+Engagement%22">Learner Engagement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22COVID-19%22">COVID-19</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pandemics%22">Pandemics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Electronic+Learning%22">Electronic Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Distance+Education%22">Distance Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Needs%22">Student Needs</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22China%22">China</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s40299-024-00941-3
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0119-5646<br />2243-7908
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Online student engagement plays a very essential role in the improvement of academic achievements. However, the role of school support in the relationship between online student engagement and academic achievements remain uncertain; whether its impact was different during and after the COVID-19 pandemic is also still being determined. Therefore, the present study conducted a questionnaire survey among 825 Chinese college students during the COVID-19 pandemic and 751 after the COVID-19 pandemic, aiming to examine the correlation between online student engagement and academic achievements, as well as the moderating influence of school support. The results showed that online student engagement had a significant predictive effect on college students' academic achievements during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, school support was found to moderate the relationship between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements only during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results indicated that the more school support the college students received, the stronger the effect of online student engagement on academic achievements during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research results provide empirical evidence for the moderation of school support in the relationship between online student engagement and college students' academic achievements.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1488388
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1488388
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s40299-024-00941-3
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 1277
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Learner Engagement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pandemics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Electronic Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Distance Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Needs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: China
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: School Support, Online Student Engagement, and Academic Achievements during and after the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Survey from China
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Lili Chen
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            NameFull: Jun Li
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            NameFull: Ying Pan
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            NameFull: Sun-Yu Gao
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            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
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              Value: 34
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              Value: 4
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