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Pre-Service Teachers' Skills Development through Educational Video Generation

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Title: Pre-Service Teachers' Skills Development through Educational Video Generation
Language: English
Authors: Marta García-Sampedro (ORCID 0000-0003-1523-1314), Susana Agudo Prado (ORCID 0000-0002-7120-6810), Antonio Torralba-Burrial (ORCID 0000-0002-4957-2080)
Source: European Journal of Teacher Education. 2026 49(2):296-314.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 19
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Early Childhood Education
Elementary Education
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Preservice Teachers, Teaching Skills, Skill Development, Video Technology, Educational Technology, Student Attitudes, Early Childhood Teachers, Elementary School Teachers, Secondary School Teachers, Foreign Countries, English (Second Language), Second Language Instruction, Student Developed Materials, Technology Uses in Education
Geographic Terms: Spain
DOI: 10.1080/02619768.2024.2323925
ISSN: 0261-9768
1469-5928
Abstract: The impacts of the pandemic on education have highlighted the need to improve pre-service teachers' digital skills training. This quantitative study explored pre-service teachers' perceptions on how the design, generation, and dissemination of didactic videos enhance their teaching competences. Early childhood, primary, and secondary education English (as a foreign language) pre-service teachers have produced eight different types of educational content in video format (stories, linguistic content, tutorials, documentaries, news programmes, contests, literary reviews, and educational system criticism) addressed to schools' audience. These videos have been circulated through YouTube channels linked to an open-access online TV portal. The results showed that these educational videos contributed to enriching their skills. Pre-service teachers' highly positive perceptions regarding improvements of these competences, remark, above all, the development of teamwork abilities thanks to this experience, and let researchers reflect on the design of more effective learning experiences through didactic video generation to ameliorate teacher education.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1503220
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0192252637;54n01apr.26;2026Mar16.01:45;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0192252637-1">Pre-service teachers' skills development through educational video generation </title> <p>The impacts of the pandemic on education have highlighted the need to improve pre-service teachers' digital skills training. This quantitative study explored pre-service teachers' perceptions on how the design, generation, and dissemination of didactic videos enhance their teaching competences. Early childhood, primary, and secondary education English (as a foreign language) pre-service teachers have produced eight different types of educational content in video format (stories, linguistic content, tutorials, documentaries, news programmes, contests, literary reviews, and educational system criticism) addressed to schools´ audience. These videos have been circulated through YouTube channels linked to an open-access online TV portal. The results showed that these educational videos contributed to enriching their skills. Pre-service teachers' highly positive perceptions regarding improvements of these competences, remark, above all, the development of teamwork abilities thanks to this experience, and let researchers reflect on the design of more effective learning experiences through didactic video generation to ameliorate teacher education.</p> <p>Keywords: Teacher education; ICT implementation; video generation; teaching competences; digital transformation</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Nowadays, the methodological changes through which the learning processes go beyond the accumulation of information demand new tools as well as the production and sharing of educational resources (Cascales Martínez, Carrillo García, and Redondo Rocamora [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref1">12</reflink>]). In this sense, educational authorities´ priorities focus on improving instruction strategies (Baturay, Gökçearslan, and Ke [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref2">7</reflink>]) bearing in mind all possible scenarios, trends, and contexts that are in progress in education (Barger [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref3">6</reflink>]). Saavedra and Opfer ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref4">51</reflink>]) consider that 'there is an increasing demand for new kinds of teaching that support students' personal building, which includes the capacity to exploit technology to develop critical thinking, problem solving and communication skills' (Saavedra and Opfer [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref5">51</reflink>], 10). In teacher education contexts, faculties have also emphasised offering new modules on educational technology to students (Mazman [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref6">39</reflink>]) and enabling pre-service teachers to gain confidence in their digital skills to design successful learning experiences (Engeness [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref7">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>During the pandemic crisis, school lockdowns persisted for months in many countries (IESALC [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref8">35</reflink>]), requiring a digital transformation of education (Iivari, Sharma, and Ventä-Olkkonen [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref9">36</reflink>]) and new school management. This renewal has focused on e-learning and b-learning tools and methodologies (Ferdig et al. [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref10">22</reflink>]), for which, not every teacher was sufficiently and efficiently trained (Ramírez-Montoya, Mena, and Rodríguez-Arroyo [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref11">48</reflink>]).</p> <p>In that context, teachers had to generate a wide variety of videos to mitigate schools' COVID-19 closure and enhance e-learning courses worldwide. However, difficulties to design, produce, and broadcast quality audio-visual learning materials was detected (Avanesian, Mizunoya, and Amaro [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref12">5</reflink>]). Thus, teachers should develop digital competences to design, produce, and use video as an ordinary learning resource (Starkey [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref13">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>Video production helps teachers and students develop multiple skills such as teamwork, learning independently, dealing with new technologies, awareness of their learning process, and communicative skills, promoting creativity meanwhile (Zhang et al. [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref14">58</reflink>]). That is why it is so necessary to study preservice teachers' perceptions about video generation.</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-3">Description of the project</hd> <p>The implementation of video generation projects is truly relevant (Epps, Luo, and Muljana [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref15">20</reflink>]; Pereira et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref16">46</reflink>]) since face-to face learning contexts are evolving into blending environments in post-pandemic times, and videos are becoming a fundamental resource in education.</p> <p>This study presents an educational innovative project implemented and assessed in the teacher education context. It gathers fundamental aspects of interaction, personalised experiences, and digitalisation, which are, undoubtedly, present in audio-visual teaching-resources generation and digital-competence development (Bousbia et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref17">8</reflink>]; Bureš, Mikulecká, and Ponce [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref18">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>Through this proposal, pre-service teachers from University of Oviedo are being trained to learn how to design and produce educational videos. The students involved in the project are enrolled in the degrees of Primary Education (4 years), Early Childhood Education (4 years), and in the Masters´ Degree in Secondary Education (1 year). Students-generated videos are being disseminated through different YouTube course channels opened for the purpose and linked to a free access online television portal. Videos are addressed to pupils and students from pre-school (3–5 years-old), primary (6–12 years-old) and secondary education stages (12–18 years old).</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-4">Objective of the study and research questions</hd> <p>The aim of this study is to analyse pre-service teachers' perceptions on the design, generation, and dissemination of didactic video resources in view of developing their own teaching-professional, digital, teamwork and communicative skills. The research questions associated with the experience are:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What types of didactic videos do pre-service teachers produce?</item> <p></p> <item> To what extent do pre-service teachers perceive that their teaching-professional, digital, teamwork and communicative competences improved with the implementation of the experience?</item> <p></p> <item> Do these perceptions differ according to pre-service teachers' specialisation (early childhood, primary, and secondary education levels)?</item> </ulist> <p>The study was started with the assumption that pre-service educational video generation improves communicative skills, both written and speaking since they must use English language all over the process, not only as a vehicle of communication with colleagues and teachers, but also when planning and writing the scripts and when recording videos. It was also thought that the project implementation promotes self-confidence in using technological tools to design, record and edit their videos.</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-5">Theoretical framework</hd> <p>Teacher education is a complex process that includes teachers' self-training and strategies to promote and achieve future students' learning (Avalos [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref19">4</reflink>]). Teaching-professional competence is the set of competences associated with the professional practices that a teacher should acquire to transfer and activate in the context of their service performance effectively (Pavié [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref20">45</reflink>]). In this pandemic-era digital scenario (2020–2023), teaching-professional competences gained fundamental importance, being considered as a confluence of dynamic interaction among the teaching education context, school context, and pre-service teachers' approach to learning (Tang et al. [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref21">56</reflink>]).</p> <p>Furthermore, teaching-professional digital competence, which refers to making and optimally using information and communication technologies (ICT) for teaching and learning (Brevik et al. [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref22">9</reflink>]), has become crucial in the last decade (Ferdig et al. [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref23">22</reflink>]). Castañeda, Esteve, and Adell ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref24">14</reflink>]) criticise teaching-professional competence institutional models as they reduce teaching function to merely work in the classroom.</p> <p>Accordingly, digital competence becomes one of the most relevant teaching- professional competences in the current instructional context. Societies still encounter the challenge of moving towards a more motivating education in which emerging technologies should have a great presence. This implies a progressive and substantial methodological evolution through which innovative tools, resources, and services, both for students and teachers should favour the production of information in different formats. Thus, digital technology is a valuable tool to engage and implement real forms of teaching more effectively (Prensky [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref25">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>As society is increasingly depending on technology, teachers' needs and required skills are also evolving (Castañeda et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref26">15</reflink>]). However, pre-service teachers' digital instruction is not enough to fulfil new digital societies' demands (Admiraal et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref27">1</reflink>]; Fernández-Batanero et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref28">23</reflink>]; Gudmundsdottir and Hatlevik [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref29">31</reflink>]). Similarly, students' fundamental abilities such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and communicative skills are not efficiently acquired (Saavedra and Opfer [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref30">51</reflink>]). Hence, teachers should develop their key competences to use and implement technology when developing teaching-learning processes with their students (Instefjord and Munthe [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref31">37</reflink>]; Sailer, Murböck, and Fischer [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref32">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>Not only should teacher educators be able to use technology for their own teaching, but also contribute to developing pre-service teachers' professional digital competence. In essence, 'The extent to which teacher educators choose to use technology in their teaching practice may thus directly influence their students' attitudes and dispositions towards integrating technology in their future classrooms' (Instefjord and Munthe [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref33">37</reflink>], 38).</p> <p>In education, as in many other aspects in society, teamwork is considered an essential and complementary professional skill to be developed both by students and teachers (Navarro et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref34">42</reflink>]). As a general competence, it should be included in every undergraduate study training plan (Almerich et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref35">3</reflink>]). To develop teachers and students´ teamwork competence, both psychosocial aspects and tasks characteristics should be taken into consideration.</p> <p>Productive teamwork requires developed interpersonal, group work, and communicative skills (Almerich et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref36">3</reflink>]). Additionally, teamwork demands efficacious teams to rapidly adapt and amend decisions as situations arise and change (Carson et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref37">11</reflink>]). Besides, a good working environment is fundamental to procure team efficacy (Navarro et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref38">42</reflink>]).</p> <p>Previous studies (e.g. Gonzalez and Dinagsao [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref39">30</reflink>]) have suggested that the areas in need of improvement in teamwork are those focused on communication and interaction skills to let team members to share their thoughts and ideas fluently. In the case of English as a foreign language, Tahir ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref40">55</reflink>]) explains that teachers are expected to be competent in the language to support their performances when teaching English. Therefore, they need to broaden their communicative competence and master their teaching skills at once. For this reason, Guzmán-Simón, Torres-Gordillo, and Caballero ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref41">32</reflink>]) insist on the necessity of training pre-service and in-service teachers on enhancing the development of their communicative abilities to help students improve their four linguistic skills.</p> <p>Thus, the practical implications of this theoretical framework rule the present study since pre-service teachers´ competence needs are defined (Tang et al. [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref42">56</reflink>]). It must not be forgotten that pre-service teachers are integrated in a highly technological and interactive society, as their future students will be (Castañeda et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref43">15</reflink>]; Instefjord and Munthe [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref44">37</reflink>]). This society, in which interpersonal relationships and teamwork are enhanced (Almerich et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref45">3</reflink>]; Gonzalez and Dinagsao [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref46">30</reflink>]), presents a powerful audiovisual character (Starkey [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref47">54</reflink>]) where the above-mentioned competence needs must be satisfied during the complex teacher education process (Avalos [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref48">4</reflink>]). Therefore, to achieve this goal, practical activities (learning by doing) that fit into the current audiovisual and communicative learning culture should be implemented (Guzmán-Simón, Torres-Gordillo, and Caballero [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref49">32</reflink>]) in the teacher education context.</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-6">Materials and methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0192252637-7">Video generation experience</hd> <p>The study presented in this article use part of the data obtained in wider research. It is specifically centred on English as a foreign language pre-service teacher´s perceptions on the implementation of a didactic video generation experience and the development of their teaching-professional, digital, teamwork and communicative skills.</p> <p>Didactictac TV is an open innovative online TV portal that hosts several YouTube channels in which pre-service teachers upload their own video productions. It was firstly designed and implemented at the Teacher Training and Education Faculty of University of Oviedo in 2018/2019 and some months later, three other teacher education faculties from different universities in Spain, Japan, and Poland joined the project, too. Thereafter, the project was also expanded to several schools in Spain. The Didactictac TV channel's main goals are disseminating pre-service teachers´ and school students' video productions and connecting the faculty with other educational institutions through an innovative open-access online ecosystem.</p> <p>By working in teams, pre-service teachers and school pupils generated short videos recorded with smartphones or tablets. These videos, which are mainly focused on educational experiences and resources, were uploaded to their courses' YouTube channels connected to the portal (Figure 1). A wide description of the portal is available in Torralba-Burrial and García-Sampedro ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref50">57</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Graphic scheme of the implementation of the audio-visual resources' generation experience in teacher education.</p> <p>Since 2018, eight universities, 18 schools, and more than 3,000 pre-service teachers and school pupils have been participating in the project, working in teams, and producing a video per group.</p> <p>The implementation of Didactictac TV channel was endorsed by the Teacher Training and Education Faculty and the Education Sciences Department authorities and approved by the University of Oviedo Teaching Innovation Committee (code PINN-18-A-022, dated 27 November 2019, code PINN-19-B-02 dated 2 December 2020, and PINN-20-074 code). Prior written informed consent to upload videos to the project YouTube channels was obtained from all the pre-service teachers and school children involved in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-8">Research sample</hd> <p>This study presents some research accomplished with three groups of pre-service teachers enrolled in the English methodology modules from the Degree in Primary Education, the Degree in Early Childhood Education, and the Masters´ Degree in Secondary Education delivered at the Teacher Training and Education Faculty, University of Oviedo. The sample consisted of 140 students enrolled in three courses: Didactic training for the language classroom II-English (4th year of Primary Teaching Education), 44%; Workshop of stories, games, and songs for the Foreign Language classroom – English (optative in 4<sups>th</sups> year of Early Childhood Teaching Education), 40%; and Learning and teaching: English (Master on Secondary Education), 14%. All the students enrolled in these courses took part on the project, as it was part of the course syllabus. Project questionnaires were answered in the final day of the project implementation, but, although answering these questionnaires was compulsory, not all the students filled it. For this reason, the type of sampling was incidental or non-probabilistic. The response rate was considered satisfactory: 109 (78%) pre-service teachers responded to the questionnaire; five answers were dismissed for being wrongly filled. Finally, 104 questionnaires were analysed assuming a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 5%.</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-9">Instrument and procedure</hd> <p>An <emph>ad hoc</emph> questionnaire was designed for the purpose, using <emph>Google forms</emph>. First, a pilot questionnaire was conducted among some voluntary pre-service teachers from the Spanish language courses who were also participating in the project and recruited for this piloting by the project coordinator. Besides, 10 project participant teachers agreed to take part on a discussion group to check the questionnaire. Consequently, the questionnaire was modified according to the received feedback. Eventually, the questionnaire comprised 55 items and a five-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). It was built according to the recommendations of Fonseca-Pedrero and Muñiz ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref51">24</reflink>]) and Hernández et al. ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref52">34</reflink>]). The questionnaire aimed to collect information on demographic variables such as gender, age, and other valuation categories such as teaching-professional, digital, teamwork and communicative competences. Even though digital, teamwork and communicative skills might be included in the teaching-professional skills category, it was decided to analyse them in isolation since they are also abilities that university students should develop in any case.</p> <p>As it was explained before, the study presented here is a partial use of the data obtained in the research focusing only on the English language methodology pre-service teachers´ sample (<emph>N</emph> = 104). The questionnaire's content validity was assessed by a panel of experts (from this faculty) who stated that the instrument was reliable and valid using the sample of the whole project to carry out these analyses (<emph>N</emph> = 938). Reliability indicated a high internal consistency that was measured through Cronbach's alpha (0.979). Regarding its validity, it is a scale with an essential one-dimensional structure because the first factor shows 49.40% of the explained variance.</p> <p>The questionnaire (Table 1) was distributed through the virtual campus of the University of Oviedo, which runs on a Moodle learning platform. Finally, the anonymity of the questionnaire and the confidentiality of the data were guaranteed, eliminating the possibility of traceability of the answers.</p> <p>Table 1. Questionnaire items.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td><p>Questionnaire items</p></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><p><bold>Genre:</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Age:</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Course:</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Degree:</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Teaching-professional competence:</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Express to what extent the following items have contributed to the improvement of your teaching-learning process valuing: 1- very little adequate and 5-very adequate.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>The performed task</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Multilingual and artistic contents</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Multicultural contents</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Implemented methodology</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Mobile technologies</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Timing</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Scenarios</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Video production</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Digital competence</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Express to what extent the project has improved your digital competence valuing: 1- very little adequate and 5-very adequate.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, tablets, and laptops)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using internet as a source of information</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using the internet as a source of creation</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Making a video</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using editing tools</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Starting a YouTube channel</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using technologies with artistic purposes</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using technologies to develop critical thinking</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Teamwork competence</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Express to what extent the project has improved your teamwork competence valuing: 1- very little adequate and 5-very adequate.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Planning task distribution</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Assuming assigned roles</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Fulfilment of assigned tasks</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Expressing own opinions</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Valuing my colleagues' opinions</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Solving problems</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Reaching group goals</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Sharing group achievements and difficulties</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Communicative competence – speaking.</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Express to what extent the project has improved your communicative speaking competence valuing: 1- very little adequate and 5-very adequate.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Being aware of the communicative situation</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Planning the script process</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Expressing oneself clearly and adequately</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Respecting socio-communicative rules</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using effective communicative strategies</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Communicative competence – writing</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Express to what extent the project has improved your written communicative competence valuing: 1- very little adequate and 5-very adequate.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Being aware of the communicative situation</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Planning the script process</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Expressing oneself clearly and correctly</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Respecting socio-communicative rules</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using effective communicative strategies</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0192252637-10">Data analysis</hd> <p>As explained before, 104 questionnaires (83% women, 17% men) were analysed assuming a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 5%. A descriptive, exploratory analysis of the data was preliminarily accomplished with MS Excel software. Statistical analyses were performed with R Commander package v2.7–1 (Fox [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref53">25</reflink>]) running on R v4.1.2 (R Core Team [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref54">49</reflink>]). Descriptive data exploration included mode (Mo), median (Me), mean (M), standard deviation obtained from the sample variance (S.D.), Pearson's coefficient of variation (CV), kurtosis (g), and asymmetry coefficient or symmetry of the distribution curve with respect to the mean (AS). To develop a normal item distribution analysis, the symmetry and kurtosis indices were checked, resulting in an interval between −1.5 and + 1.5. The arithmetic mean would be representative of the data set if the CV was equal to or less than 30%. If this mean was higher than 30%, it would not be representative of the data set, and therefore not reliable.</p> <p>Data visual analysis was explored with Primer-e v6 (Clarke and Gorley [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref55">16</reflink>]) using a non-metric multidimensional scaling (nMDS) that allows a relatively transparent link between the original data (dissimilarity between samples, in this case between pre-service teachers' perceptions) and their graphical representation, preserving relationships in the bi-dimensional ordination space with great flexibility in model assumptions about the data (Clarke and Gorley [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref56">16</reflink>]). Euclidean distance was used as a dissimilarity measure among perceptions, due to homogeneity in ranges (1–5) among the variables of perceptions of skills improvement. This method could increase dissimilarity between individuals due to the correlation of variables, but the visual order was preserved in the nMDS graphic (Mukherjee, Sinha, and Chattopadhyay [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref57">41</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-11">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0192252637-12">Pre-service teachers' video generation</hd> <p>Students from these three courses generated 73 didactic videos which were viewed 1,532 times (Table 2). This demonstrates the high interest derived from the experience and its capacity to motivate students both as generators and consumers. The videos designed by Primary Education Degree (hereon PE) and Secondary Education Master´s Degree (hereon SE) pre-service teachers received similar attention (37% of the total visualisations in each case), whereas those produced by Early Childhood Education Degree (hereon EC) pre-service teachers received a quarter (25%) of the total views.</p> <p>Table 2. Number of pre-service teachers generated videos and their views.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td><p>Module</p></td><td><p>Videos</p></td><td><p>Views</p></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><p>Workshop of stories, games, and songs for the foreign language classroom – English</p></td><td><p>26</p></td><td><p>386</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Didactic training for the language classroom II-English</p></td><td><p>27</p></td><td><p>573</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Learning and teaching: English</p></td><td><p>20</p></td><td><p>573</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>TOTAL</p></td><td><p>73</p></td><td><p>1,532</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>The videos produced were addressed to children and/or teenagers. Most of them were subtitled in English (none in Spanish). Pre-service students were free to choose the type of video they wanted to produce, and the analysis revealed eight major categories: stories (40%), linguistic content (19%), tutorials (11%), documentaries (10%), news programmes (7%), contests (7%), literary reviews (5%; only in the pre-service SE channel, which represents 20% of the generated videos) and educational system criticism (1%). The most popular category in EC was stories (undoubtedly so), with 20 videos (77% of the videos generated by these students). PE pre-service teachers also designed stories as the most common category (but only 26% of their videos were included in this category), followed by linguistic content videos (22%). However, SE pre-service teachers preferred tutorials (25%), linguistic content (25%), and literary reviews (20%) as their favourite choices to generate their videos (Table 3). An extended description of generated videos, according to their type, is included in Table 4.</p> <p>Table 3. Pre-service teacher's choice for video type, according to the stage of education (<emph>n</emph> = 73).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td><p>Type of generated videos</p></td><td><p>EC</p></td><td><p>P</p></td><td><p>S</p></td><td><p>Total</p></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><p>Stories</p></td><td><p>20</p></td><td><p>7</p></td><td><p>2</p></td><td><p>29</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Linguistic content</p></td><td><p>3</p></td><td><p>6</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>14</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Tutorials</p></td><td /><td><p>3</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>8</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Documentaries</p></td><td><p>1</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>1</p></td><td><p>7</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>News programmes</p></td><td><p>1</p></td><td><p>1</p></td><td><p>3</p></td><td><p>5</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Contests</p></td><td><p>1</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td /><td><p>5</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Literary reviews</p></td><td /><td /><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Educational system criticism</p></td><td /><td><p>1</p></td><td /><td><p>1</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 EC = Early childhood; <emph>p</emph> = Primary, S = Secondary.</p> <p>Table 4. Description of videos generated by pre-service teachers in each category.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td><p><italic>1- Stories</italic> In the case of the EC, 19 stories were created by pre-service teachers, and only one was a shortened version of a traditional story (The tortoise and the hare). In PE, pre-service teachers produced five stories, two of them inspired by the traditional 'Red riding hood' story. In all these videos, pre-service teachers did not appear as characters, but used photographs, drawings, puppets, and toys. Both in EC and PE, the topic of inclusion was coincidentally iterative. In SE, there were only two videos of stories whose plot was created by pre-service teachers. In one of these stories, toys were used as main characters and in the other, the pre-service teachers were the main actors.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><italic>2- Linguistic content</italic> In the EC channel, the linguistic content videos were focused on vocabulary: clothes, animals, and fruit. In PE, videos of this category were also based on vocabulary content: family, animals, the weather, clothes, seasons, numbers, and fruits. In SE, there were three videos about phonetic issues, one about prepositions, and another about metaphorical English.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><italic>3- Tutorials</italic> Tutorials are videos that teach the audience how to make something. In EC, there were none. In PE, there were three. Two of them were recipes, and one about Halloween make-up. In SE, there was one video of a recipe, and four about what to do in quarantine. In all these four videos, the pre-service teachers appeared as main characters.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><italic>4- Documentaries</italic> In EC, there was one video about the Asturian city of Gijón. In PE, there were five documentaries. The first was about Asturian Mythology. There was another about cultures of the world, and the rest were about Halloween, Coronavirus, and Hellen Keller´s life. In SE, there was one about the Cheese-Rolling Festival in Glasgow. All of them was edited using a combination of photographs, drawings, and students' presentations.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><italic>5- News programmes</italic> In EC, there was one video dealing with this topic and another one in PE. In both, puppets were the main characters. In SE, there were three videos. One was a weather forecast programme, and the other two were on world news. In one case, the news content was true, but the others comprised fake news specifically designed for the videos.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><italic>6- Contests</italic> In EC, there was one very simple contest in which students asked questions playing with right or wrong. In PE, there were four contests. Two of them were music contests such as Eurovision, and the other two were quiz programmes. In SE, there were no contest programmes. These contests were fictional in each case.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><italic>7- Literature reviews</italic> In SE, there were four videos in this category, using a lapbook as the main resource to teach literature in the English as a foreign language classroom.</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><italic>8- Educational system criticism</italic> There was only one video in this category (PE), in which some pre-service teachers made a parody of traditional teachers' attitudes towards education.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0192252637-13">Pre-service teachers' perceptions on developed skills through video generation</hd> <p>The experience valuation was conducted through the following categories: teaching-professional, digital, teamwork and communicative competences. The items included in each competence received a similar valuation as those belonging to the same competence, showing greater dispersions of those belonging to teaching digital competence (especially the one related to the YouTube channel) (Figure 2). The overall assessment of the experience based on pre-service teachers' perceptions was very high (mean 4.04, SD = 1.09), with 5 as the most frequently recorded value (the best possible assessment). The best-rated category was teamwork competence (<emph>M</emph> = 4.39, S.D. = 0.85, and CV 19%).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Dissimilarity (n-MDS with Euclidean distances) among pre-service teachers' perceptions of each skill enhancement through didactic video generation (n = 104).</p> <p>The contribution of the experience valued by pre-service teachers to the improvement of their competences and their descriptors according to the items are listed in Table 5. The coefficients of variation were higher than 30% for some of the items, and in those cases, it should be noted that the sample was more dispersed, and the data were less reliable. Pre-service teachers' perceptions were very similar in the three degrees; however, EC pre-service teachers presented a higher media. A few pre-service teachers of PE and SE had lower perceptions about the improvement of their skills through the experience, whereas EC pre-service teachers' perceptions were all very positive (Figure 3).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Dissimilarity (n-MDS with Euclidean distances) among pre-service teachers' perceptions of skills enhancement through didactic video generation, according to the degree they are pursuing (n = 104).</p> <p>Table 5. Pre-service teachers' perceptions of improving teaching-learning competences through generating videos (<emph>n</emph> = 104).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td><p>Descriptors</p></td><td><p>Code</p></td><td><p>Mo</p></td><td><p>Me</p></td><td><p>M</p></td><td><p>SD</p></td><td><p>CV</p></td><td><p>g</p></td><td><p>CA</p></td><td><p>S</p></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><p>Teaching-professional competence</p></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><p>The performed task</p></td><td><p>TPC1</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.92</p></td><td><p>1.08</p></td><td><p>27</p></td><td><p>0.52</p></td><td><p>−1.03</p></td><td><p>**</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Multilingual and artistic contents</p></td><td><p>TPC2</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.92</p></td><td><p>1.15</p></td><td><p>29</p></td><td><p>0.69</p></td><td><p>−1.16</p></td><td><p>***</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Multicultural contents</p></td><td><p>TPC3</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.75</p></td><td><p>1.20</p></td><td><p>32</p></td><td><p>−0.09</p></td><td><p>−0.83</p></td><td><p>**</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Implemented methodology</p></td><td><p>TPC4</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.95</p></td><td><p>1.14</p></td><td><p>29</p></td><td><p>0.48</p></td><td><p>−1.06</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Mobile technologies</p></td><td><p>TPC5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.90</p></td><td><p>1.14</p></td><td><p>29</p></td><td><p>0.17</p></td><td><p>−0.94</p></td><td><p>**</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Timing</p></td><td><p>TPC6</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.58</p></td><td><p>1.18</p></td><td><p>33</p></td><td><p>−0.32</p></td><td><p>−0.64</p></td><td><p>***</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Scenarios</p></td><td><p>TPC7</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.55</p></td><td><p>1.28</p></td><td><p>36</p></td><td><p>−0.71</p></td><td><p>−0.56</p></td><td><p>***</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Video production</p></td><td><p>TPC8</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.14</p></td><td><p>1.07</p></td><td><p>26</p></td><td><p>1.28</p></td><td><p>−1.33</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Digital competence</bold></p></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><p>Using mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, tablets, and laptops)</p></td><td><p>DC1</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.11</p></td><td><p>1.03</p></td><td><p>25</p></td><td><p>0.08</p></td><td><p>−0.92</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using internet as a source of information</p></td><td><p>DC2</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.82</p></td><td><p>1.21</p></td><td><p>32</p></td><td><p>−0.02</p></td><td><p>−0.87</p></td><td><p>0.07</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using the internet as a source of creation</p></td><td><p>DC3</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.87</p></td><td><p>1.23</p></td><td><p>32</p></td><td><p>0.01</p></td><td><p>−0.95</p></td><td><p>0.18</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Making a video</p></td><td><p>DC4</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.12</p></td><td><p>1.04</p></td><td><p>25</p></td><td><p>0.21</p></td><td><p>−0.98</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using editing tools</p></td><td><p>DC5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.01</p></td><td><p>1.03</p></td><td><p>26</p></td><td><p>−0.07</p></td><td><p>−0.78</p></td><td><p>0.13</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Starting a YouTube channel</p></td><td><p>DC6</p></td><td><p>3</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.41</p></td><td><p>1.27</p></td><td><p>37</p></td><td><p>−0.71</p></td><td><p>−0.45</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using technologies with artistic purposes</p></td><td><p>DC7</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.98</p></td><td><p>1.05</p></td><td><p>26</p></td><td><p>0.62</p></td><td><p>−0.98</p></td><td><p>0.16</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using technologies to develop critical thinking</p></td><td><p>DC8</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.89</p></td><td><p>1.12</p></td><td><p>29</p></td><td><p>0.83</p></td><td><p>−1.13</p></td><td><p>0.24</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Teamwork competence</bold></p></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><p>Planning task distribution</p></td><td><p>TWC1</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.23</p></td><td><p>0.91</p></td><td><p>21</p></td><td><p>0.89</p></td><td><p>−1.12</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Assuming assigned roles</p></td><td><p>TWC2</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4.48</p></td><td><p>0.75</p></td><td><p>17</p></td><td><p>1.90</p></td><td><p>−1.48</p></td><td><p>0.29</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Fulfilment of assigned tasks</p></td><td><p>TWC3</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4.40</p></td><td><p>0.82</p></td><td><p>19</p></td><td><p>1.05</p></td><td><p>−1.31</p></td><td><p>0.07</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Expressing own opinions</p></td><td><p>TWC4</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4.28</p></td><td><p>1.01</p></td><td><p>24</p></td><td><p>1.29</p></td><td><p>−1.40</p></td><td><p>0.23</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Valuing my colleagues' opinions</p></td><td><p>TWC5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4.50</p></td><td><p>0.79</p></td><td><p>18</p></td><td><p>1.54</p></td><td><p>−1.52</p></td><td><p>0.09</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Solving problems</p></td><td><p>TWC6</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4.40</p></td><td><p>0.79</p></td><td><p>18</p></td><td><p>0.81</p></td><td><p>−1.22</p></td><td><p>0.06</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Reaching group goals</p></td><td><p>TWC7</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4.47</p></td><td><p>0.81</p></td><td><p>18</p></td><td><p>1.59</p></td><td><p>−1.51</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Sharing group achievements and difficulties</p></td><td><p>TWC8</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4.38</p></td><td><p>0.85</p></td><td><p>19</p></td><td><p>2.25</p></td><td><p>−1.49</p></td><td><p>0.07</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Communicative competence – speaking</bold></p></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><p>Being aware of the communicative situation</p></td><td><p>LCCS1</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.94</p></td><td><p>1.15</p></td><td><p>29</p></td><td><p>0.53</p></td><td><p>−1,10</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Planning the script process</p></td><td><p>LCCS2</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.00</p></td><td><p>1.11</p></td><td><p>28</p></td><td><p>0.42</p></td><td><p>1.05</p></td><td><p>0.05</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Expressing oneself clearly and adequately</p></td><td><p>LCCS3</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.01</p></td><td><p>1.08</p></td><td><p>27</p></td><td><p>0.99</p></td><td><p>−1.19</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Respecting socio-communicative rules</p></td><td><p>LCCS4</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.05</p></td><td><p>1.07</p></td><td><p>27</p></td><td><p>1.21</p></td><td><p>−1.25</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using effective communicative strategies</p></td><td><p>LCCS5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.06</p></td><td><p>1.12</p></td><td><p>28</p></td><td><p>1.13</p></td><td><p>−1.29</p></td><td><p>0.06</p></td></tr><tr><td><p><bold>Communicative competencewriting</bold></p></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><p>Being aware of the communicative situation</p></td><td><p>LCCW1</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.88</p></td><td><p>1.09</p></td><td><p>28</p></td><td><p>0.77</p></td><td><p>−1.05</p></td><td><p>**</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Planning the script process</p></td><td><p>LCCW2</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.03</p></td><td><p>1.02</p></td><td><p>25</p></td><td><p>0.68</p></td><td><p>−1.01</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Expressing oneself clearly and correctly</p></td><td><p>LCCW3</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.02</p></td><td><p>1.08</p></td><td><p>27</p></td><td><p>0.16</p></td><td><p>−0.94</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Respecting socio-communicative rules</p></td><td><p>LCCW4</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>3.97</p></td><td><p>1.09</p></td><td><p>28</p></td><td><p>0.63</p></td><td><p>−1.04</p></td><td><p>*</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Using effective communicative strategies</p></td><td><p>LCCW5</p></td><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>4.00</p></td><td><p>1.07</p></td><td><p>27</p></td><td><p>1.03</p></td><td><p>−1.16</p></td><td><p>0.18</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 Mo = mode; Me = median; <emph>M</emph> = mean; SD = standard deviation; CV = Pearson's coefficient of variation, g = kurtosis; AS = asymmetry coefficient with respect to the mean; S = p-value of the Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test between students' degrees (*< 0.05, **< 0.01, ***< 0.001).</p> <p>Pre-service teachers' perceptions of the contribution of the experience to the improvement of their teaching-professional competence were very positive in all three courses (<emph>M</emph> = 3.84, S.D. = 1.17, and CV 30%). The most appreciated contribution to the development of teaching-professional competence was 'Video production', with an average of 4.14. EC pre-service teachers' perceptions about the different descriptors in this competence were significantly more positive (<emph>p</emph> < 0.05) than PE and SE pre-service teachers' perceptions in the cases of 'Scenarios', 'Timing', 'Multicultural contents', and 'Multilingual and artistic contents. Their perceptions were also more positive than PE pre-service teachers' perceptions on 'Mobile technology uses', 'Implemented technology', 'Performed task', and 'Video production' skills.</p> <p>In the case of digital competence, EC pre-service teachers' perceptions showed a higher media than those of the other groups in all cases; however, there was a greater dispersion in all education stages. For this reason, only 'Making a video', 'Using mobile devices', and 'Starting a YouTube channel' showed significant differences among pre-service teachers about improving their skills through the experience. Among the items that obtained a coefficient of variation below 30%, 'Making a video' obtained the highest medium value (4.12) and the 'Use of technologies to generate critical thinking' obtained the lowest average perception (3.89), which is, however, a more positive than a neutral perception.</p> <p>Teamwork competence obtained the best results in the survey, being valued more frequently with 5 (best score). The mean (M) exceeds 4 in all cases, but that obtained for the item 'Valuing my colleagues' opinion' (4.50) was especially high. EC pre-service teachers' perceptions were slightly, but significantly more positive than PE pre-service teachers' perceptions in six of the descriptors (Table 5).</p> <p>Regarding the communicative competence in English as a foreign language, it was observed that pre-service teachers perceived a high contribution to the improvement of their skills, both in written and oral form. Hence, all items obtained average scores of approximately 4.00 or more, with the highest contribution to 'using effective communicative strategies' and 'respecting socio-communicative rules' in communicative competence: speaking, whereas 'planning the script process' and 'expressing oneself clearly and correctly' achieved slightly higher scores in communicative competence: writing. Scores in 'using effective communicative strategies' do not differ significantly among the courses, considering the three groups of pre-service teachers' high contribution of the experience to the development of these skills in a similar way. The main differences in the remaining items were derived from more positive perceptions of the contribution of the experience in the development of communicative competences (in English as a foreign language) by the EC pre-service teachers compared to the other pre-service teachers.</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-14">Discussion and conclusion</hd> <p>Results showed that pre-service English (as a foreign language) teachers have perceived video generation as a useful learning experience, coinciding with previous studies (Epps, Luo, and Muljana [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref58">20</reflink>]; Hawley and Allen [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref59">33</reflink>]). This sort of experiences helps students develop procedure knowledge (Jordan et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref60">38</reflink>]; Pereira et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref61">46</reflink>]), clarify concepts (Pereira et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref62">46</reflink>]), and improve general learning outcomes (Orús et al. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref63">43</reflink>]).</p> <p>In relation with the first research question, pre-service teachers from EC, PE, and SE have been acting as producers and consumers (prosumers) at the same time (Agudo, Ruíz, and García-Sampedro [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref64">2</reflink>]) creating a host number of videos belonging to eight different content categories and visualising many of them, too. PE and SE pre-service teachers´ videos were more viewed than EC ones.</p> <p>It was also observed, coinciding with Pattier ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref65">44</reflink>]), that depending on the studies pre-service teachers were pursuing, the thematic of the videos were entirely different since they were designed according to their future students' needs. Thus, stories were the most popular option for EC and PE pre-service teachers, while documentaries were the most produced by ES ones.</p> <p>Similar methodological approaches to promote student-generated didactic videos have been previously implemented in numerous disciplines worldwide with great success (see reviews on Epps, Luo, and Muljana [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref66">20</reflink>]; Hawley and Allen [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref67">33</reflink>]). In the case of Pereira et al'.s ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref68">46</reflink>]), their study developed with nursing students revealed that self-generated videos helped them improve curricular and cross-curricular competences and was highly considered by both students and teachers. Another example would be the wide systematic review of students' generated video experiences recently conducted by Epps, Luo, and Muljana ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref69">20</reflink>]) whose conclusions and suggestions are coherent with those found in the present study.</p> <p>Related to the second research question, and as it was expected, not only did pre-service teachers perceive an improvement in their communicative skills, but also in their teaching-professional, digital, and teamwork competences (Zhang et al. [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref70">58</reflink>]). Stanley and Zhang ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref71">53</reflink>]) and Orús et al. ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref72">43</reflink>]) also considered that didactic video generation improve students' engagement in learning and competences development.</p> <p>It should be considered that pre-service teachers do not have many opportunities for developing many hands-on activities, especially related to educational technology during their training (Ramírez-Montoya, Mena, and Rodríguez-Arroyo [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref73">48</reflink>]). Consequently, not many teachers have developed the necessary abilities to put into practice innovative digital projects. That is why this aspect has also been valuated very positively.</p> <p>In this study, the most valued contribution to the development of teaching-professional competence, was the use of collaborative learning methodologies and the interaction with other pre-service and in-service teachers (from schools). Collaboration was also highly regarded, as in (Orús et al. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref74">43</reflink>]), when fulfilling tasks and assuming different roles (Almerich et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref75">3</reflink>]) probably due to the lack of teamwork abilities previously developed.</p> <p>Pre-service teachers consider they have improved their ability to express opinions and value their colleagues' points of view when solving problems or sharing achievements and difficulties.</p> <p>Pre-service teachers also think that they have developed their digital skills, which are, as Falloon ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref76">21</reflink>]) and Sailer, Murböck, and Fischer ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref77">52</reflink>]) remark, fundamental issues to achieve an effective usage of educational technologies. They especially valued their digital competence development when making videos, using mobile devices as a working tool (Agudo, Ruíz, and García-Sampedro [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref78">2</reflink>]), and when starting YouTube channels.</p> <p>In this regard, it should be noted that social networks, such as YouTube, have promoted a wider global interaction with audio-visual content and encouraged new digital products generation among teachers and students at the same time (Epps, Luo, and Muljana [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref79">20</reflink>]; Gleason and Von Gillern [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref80">29</reflink>]). Besides, YouTube stands out for its high number of viewings and extensive material production (Moghavvemi et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref81">40</reflink>]) addressed at all educational levels (Del Valle-Ramón, García-Valcárcel Muñoz-Repiso, and Basilotta Gómez-Pablos [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref82">18</reflink>]), secondary (Fyfield [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref83">26</reflink>]), and higher education (Curran et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref84">17</reflink>]).</p> <p>In this study, pre-service teachers showed high scores on the improvement of their communicative skills both in a written or speaking form. They regard that they have developed effective communicative strategies when speaking in English and learned how to respect socio-communicative rules productively. Related to the written communication, the planning and elaboration of video scripts and the enhancement of their written expression are the most valued items. The study also demonstrated that the improvement of communicative skills had positive effects on acquiring both curricular and cross-curricular course contents as (Gallardo-Williams et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref85">27</reflink>]) state. Bearing in mind the complexity of implementing educational practices to develop students' English-speaking communicative competence, the project should be considered by future teachers at length since Guzmán-Simón, Torres-Gordillo, and Caballero ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref86">32</reflink>]) think that most of the English as foreign language tasks, in the Spanish context, are oriented, essentially, to the improvement of written and reading skills.</p> <p>Related to the third research question, pre-service teachers´ perceptions on the improvement of their skills through the developed experience do not differ much according to their specialisation, although a lower perception of improvement in a few pre-service teachers from PE and SE decreased the mean of these groups compared to those of EC.</p> <p>In short, all the above-mentioned confirms that video generation experiences present a wide potential and promote digital educational scenario enhancement. They also foster the use and implementation of mobile technologies, digital tools, and social media (García-Sampedro, Miranda, and Iñesta [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref87">28</reflink>]).</p> <p>Pre-service teachers may not be efficiently trained on technological issues at faculties as Reisoglu and Cebi ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref88">50</reflink>]) state, and in consequence, they should be encouraged to participate on innovative digital experiences to improve their digital competence. Accordingly, educational institutions should imperiously try to provide pre-service teachers with a quality digital instruction (Casillas, Cabezas, and García [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref89">13</reflink>]; Fernández-Batanero et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref90">23</reflink>]; Ramírez-Montoya, Mena, and Rodríguez-Arroyo [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref91">48</reflink>]) and specific video generation skills to be able to design their own educational resources in this post-pandemic b-learning context.</p> <p>Finally, the study presents some limitations that could be understood as future research lines. Some other questionnaires items, such as motivation, for example, might have been incorporated, adding more specific information on pre-service teachers´ attitude and response to the experience. Additionally, some qualitative items could have been included in the questionnaire, too. Some other research techniques, such as discussion groups, ethnographic observation, or interviews could have enriched the results obtained with more detailed data. Besides, future studies should regard the inclusion of new research categories, as well as different sample of students and teachers from different areas and modules. Lastly, new questionnaires addressed to participant primary and secondary teachers and students could be proposed.</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-15">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>Thank you to Rita Jardón from ESNE Oviedo for her advice and support. Thank you also to all the teachers and students who have participated in the Didactictac TV experience and contributed to its success.</p> <hd id="AN0192252637-16">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0192252637-17"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref27" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Admiraal, W., F. van Vugt, F. Kranenburg, B. Koster, B. Smit, S. Weijers, and D. Lockhorst. 2017. " Preparing Pre-Service Teachers to Integrate Technology into K–12 Instruction: Evaluation of a Technology-Infused Approach." 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Information & Management 43 (1): 15 – 27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2005.01.004.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Marta García-Sampedro; Susana Agudo Prado and Antonio Torralba-Burrial</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Marta García-Sampedro has been working as a lecturer and researcher in the Education Sciences Department, University of Oviedo, Spain since 2011. She has got an International PhD in Education and Psychology (2017), a Master in Socio-Educational Intervention and Research (2013), and a Degree in English Primary Teaching from the University of Oviedo (2001). She also holds a Degree in English Philology from the University of Valladolid, Spain (1993). Her field of expertise is mainly focused on English as an additional language teaching-learning process, especially in communicative skill development. For this purpose, she has produced different proposals incorporating the use of art and heritage as a resource in non-formal contexts. She has also been developing several initiatives related to m-learning and online TV channel implementation at schools and teacher education faculties with the same purpose. She has taken part in several international research projects and published numerous articles in national and international journals.</p> <p>Susana Agudo , PhD is a lecturer and researcher from the Educational Sciences Department, University of Oviedo. She has participated in many research projects related to ICT implementation in society. She has also published numerous papers about three main pillars: emerging technologies, elderly people, and active methodologies.</p> <p>AntonioTorralba-Burrial , Ph. D is a lecturer in Didactics of Experimental Sciences in the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education of the University of Oviedo and coordinator of the Environmental Education and Communication Unit of the Institute of Natural Resources and Territorial Planning (Indurot) of the same university. He has a background in environmental issues, with research lines and projects related to didactics of the natural environment and experimental sciences, environmental education, teaching resources in formal and non-formal education, and aquatic ecology and biodiversity, including citizen science and nature connection.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref89"></nolink>
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Pre-Service Teachers' Skills Development through Educational Video Generation
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Marta+García-Sampedro%22">Marta García-Sampedro</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1523-1314">0000-0003-1523-1314</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Susana+Agudo+Prado%22">Susana Agudo Prado</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7120-6810">0000-0002-7120-6810</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Antonio+Torralba-Burrial%22">Antonio Torralba-Burrial</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4957-2080">0000-0002-4957-2080</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22European+Journal+of+Teacher+Education%22"><i>European Journal of Teacher Education</i></searchLink>. 2026 49(2):296-314.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 19
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preservice+Teachers%22">Preservice Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Skills%22">Teaching Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Skill+Development%22">Skill Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Video+Technology%22">Video Technology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Technology%22">Educational Technology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Early+Childhood+Teachers%22">Early Childhood Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Teachers%22">Elementary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Teachers%22">Secondary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22English+%28Second+Language%29%22">English (Second Language)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Second+Language+Instruction%22">Second Language Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Developed+Materials%22">Student Developed Materials</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Technology+Uses+in+Education%22">Technology Uses in Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spain%22">Spain</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/02619768.2024.2323925
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0261-9768<br />1469-5928
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The impacts of the pandemic on education have highlighted the need to improve pre-service teachers' digital skills training. This quantitative study explored pre-service teachers' perceptions on how the design, generation, and dissemination of didactic videos enhance their teaching competences. Early childhood, primary, and secondary education English (as a foreign language) pre-service teachers have produced eight different types of educational content in video format (stories, linguistic content, tutorials, documentaries, news programmes, contests, literary reviews, and educational system criticism) addressed to schools' audience. These videos have been circulated through YouTube channels linked to an open-access online TV portal. The results showed that these educational videos contributed to enriching their skills. Pre-service teachers' highly positive perceptions regarding improvements of these competences, remark, above all, the development of teamwork abilities thanks to this experience, and let researchers reflect on the design of more effective learning experiences through didactic video generation to ameliorate teacher education.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1503220
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1503220
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/02619768.2024.2323925
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 19
        StartPage: 296
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Preservice Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Skill Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Video Technology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Technology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Childhood Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Secondary School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: English (Second Language)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Second Language Instruction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Developed Materials
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Technology Uses in Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Spain
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Pre-Service Teachers' Skills Development through Educational Video Generation
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
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      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Marta García-Sampedro
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Susana Agudo Prado
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          Name:
            NameFull: Antonio Torralba-Burrial
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0261-9768
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1469-5928
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 49
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: European Journal of Teacher Education
              Type: main
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