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Exploring Hope in Australian Justice Involved Youth with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

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Title: Exploring Hope in Australian Justice Involved Youth with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
Language: English
Authors: Nadia Tan (ORCID 0000-0002-7847-9061), Kuen Yee Tan (ORCID 0000-0002-2727-1471), Carmela F. Pestell (ORCID 0000-0002-1737-7774), James P. Fitzpatrick (ORCID 0000-0003-0384-3233)
Source: International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 2026 73(2):355-366.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, Empowerment, Expectation, Delinquency, Foreign Countries, Individual Characteristics, Indigenous Populations, Family Structure, Substance Abuse, Educational Attainment, Place of Residence, Clinical Diagnosis, Rural Urban Differences, Cultural Differences, Family Environment
Geographic Terms: Australia
DOI: 10.1080/1034912X.2024.2427611
ISSN: 1034-912X
1465-346X
Abstract: Hope is well recognised as a positive protective factor for mental health, improved coping responses to adverse childhood events and better educational outcomes. Hope is composed of synergistic constituents -- agency and pathway. A retrospective chart review was conducted of 53 justice-involved youths (10-17 years old) who underwent Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) diagnostic assessments with Patches in Western Australia between 2019 and 2020. Snyder's Children's Hope Scale was included as part of the diagnostic assessment. There was a statistically significant difference (p = 0.038) for the agency subscale score between those diagnosed with FASD versus those without FASD. As agency quantifies an individual's goal-setting capacity and the motivation to achieve goals, it is possible that the impacts of FASD on executive functioning are reflected in lower scores. Factors such as cultural background, schooling engagement, previous alcohol/substance use or rurality did not significantly affect hope scores. It is recommended that justice-involved youths diagnosed with FASD receive specific training to encourage executive functioning skills and external support from consistent, supportive and culturally safe school systems and adult role models. This cohort is at a developmental stage where resilience, executive functioning skills, and community support can positively impact mental health and future trajectories.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1504068
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0191629654;54q01mar.26;2026Feb19.04:40;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0191629654-1">Exploring Hope in Australian Justice Involved Youth with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder </title> <p>Hope is well recognised as a positive protective factor for mental health, improved coping responses to adverse childhood events and better educational outcomes. Hope is composed of synergistic constituents – agency and pathway. A retrospective chart review was conducted of 53 justice-involved youths (10−17 years old) who underwent Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) diagnostic assessments with Patches in Western Australia between 2019 and 2020. Snyder's Children's Hope Scale was included as part of the diagnostic assessment. There was a statistically significant difference (p = 0.038) for the agency subscale score between those diagnosed with FASD versus those without FASD. As agency quantifies an individual's goal-setting capacity and the motivation to achieve goals, it is possible that the impacts of FASD on executive functioning are reflected in lower scores. Factors such as cultural background, schooling engagement, previous alcohol/substance use or rurality did not significantly affect hope scores. It is recommended that justice-involved youths diagnosed with FASD receive specific training to encourage executive functioning skills and external support from consistent, supportive and culturally safe school systems and adult role models. This cohort is at a developmental stage where resilience, executive functioning skills, and community support can positively impact mental health and future trajectories.</p> <p>Keywords: Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder; snyder's children's hope scale; youth justice system; hope; executive functioning</p> <p>Hope has been described as an 'overall perception that one's goals can be met' (Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref1">15</reflink>]). Hope can be further characterised by two components – agency and pathway (Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref2">15</reflink>]). Agency quantifies an individual's ability to form goals and the motivation required to attain them (Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref3">15</reflink>]). The pathway component quantifies an individual's resilience in attaining goals in the face of obstacles or challenges (Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref4">15</reflink>]). The positive correlations between high levels of hope and mental health have been well described in previous studies (Ciarrochi et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref5">3</reflink>]; Sparks et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref6">16</reflink>]; Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref7">21</reflink>]). It is acknowledged that higher levels of hope assist with positive behavioural regulation and improved emotional adjustment (Ciarrochi et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref8">3</reflink>]; Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref9">21</reflink>]). Hope can contribute to higher resilience in the face of adverse childhood events (Sparks et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref10">16</reflink>]). In the classroom, it has been demonstrated that hopeful youth achieve better scholastic outcomes (Ciarrochi et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref11">3</reflink>]; Dixson et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref12">4</reflink>]; Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref13">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>Justice-involved youth are at higher risk of experiencing trauma at personal, social and community levels, which may further disparage their levels of hope (Hamilton et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref14">6</reflink>]). Previous studies have proposed that hope may have an instrumental function in assisting families of children with disability to positively adapt to the disability (Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref15">21</reflink>]). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) encompasses a range of cognitive, physical, emotional and behavioural differences after utero alcohol exposure (G. K. Tan et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref16">18</reflink>]). Families of children with foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) often report lower levels of hope than other families of neurodiverse children (such as children with autism spectrum disorder or Down Syndrome) (Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref17">21</reflink>]). Additionally, individuals with FASD are again at compounded risk of negative effects on hope due to a higher incidence of traumatic events in their backgrounds (G. K. Y. Tan et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref18">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>Snyder's Children's Hope Scale (SCHS) has been validated as a standardised measure which can reflect the levels of hope in paediatric participants across many international, social, and cultural settings (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref19">8</reflink>]; Savahl, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref20">12</reflink>]; Savahl et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref21">13</reflink>]; Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref22">20</reflink>]). Within Australia, previous literature on the levels of hope in Australian adolescents has also used the adult version of Snyder's Hope Scale (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref23">20</reflink>]). These authors found that adolescents in regional areas had lower hope pathway scores than metropolitan adolescents (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref24">20</reflink>]). Additionally, they reported that after the age of 15 years old, hope pathway scores in males exceeded that of female scores (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref25">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>No current literature quantifies the levels of hope among young individuals within the Western Australian (WA) justice system. Young people involved in the justice system may have higher trauma, mental health concerns, conduct disorders, and alcohol or substance misuse (Hamilton et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref26">6</reflink>]). There is also an over-representation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth in our justice system (Hamilton et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref27">6</reflink>]). Additionally, these youths are at higher risk for neurocognitive disability and FASD (Hamilton et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref28">6</reflink>]). Within the WA Youth Justice System, there is a prevalence of FASD of up to 36% (Bower et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref29">2</reflink>]). The development of emotional resilience, problem-solving skills, positive role-modelling and community supports at this time-critical stage in a young person's life can positively impact their future trajectories and build strong foundations for improved mental health (Ciarrochi et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref30">3</reflink>]; Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref31">21</reflink>]). The use of hope as a recovery capital may therefore inform future therapeutic recommendations (Hamilton et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref32">6</reflink>]).</p> <p>Patches Assessment Services (Patches) offers a multi-disciplinary assessment based on Australian diagnostic guidelines for FASD in the justice system in WA (Bower et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref33">1</reflink>]). A routine part of this assessment since 2017 has included using the SCHS to assess an individual's self-reported rating of hope, agency and pathway. Interpretation of the SCHS is performed in the context of international validation across multiple social and economic settings (Haroz et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref34">7</reflink>]; Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref35">8</reflink>]; Savahl, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref36">12</reflink>]; Savahl et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref37">13</reflink>]; Shadlow et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref38">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>This study aimed to characterise the levels of hope within individuals who have had an assessment for FASD and secondarily to determine if there are differences in hope amongst different subgroups in the study sample. Subgroups identified within the cohort included individuals diagnosed with FASD, individuals identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, individuals from rural areas, individuals living with biological parents, individuals engaged in schooling at the time of assessment and individuals with a history of substance or alcohol use.</p> <p>Examination of the levels of hope in individuals with a subsequent diagnosis of FASD compared to no FASD diagnosis was chosen due to the known impacts of FASD on Hope (Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref39">21</reflink>]). Differences in hope based on Australian-specific cultural backgrounds were also examined to compare to previous international research conducted on the topic (Haroz et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref40">7</reflink>]; Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref41">8</reflink>]; Savahl, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref42">12</reflink>]; Shadlow et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref43">14</reflink>]). The impact of rurality on hope in this study was examined as there are previous Australian data on the differences in hope between rural and metropolitan adolescents (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref44">20</reflink>]). Similarly, prior studies have shown trauma to influence reported hope, so other variables such as family situation, school engagement, and alcohol and drug use were included, given their association with adverse childhood experiences or trauma (Hamilton et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref45">6</reflink>]). Identifying cohorts where hope may be targeted as a therapeutic capital may be important to help inform therapy recommendations.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-2">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191629654-3">Sampling Design</hd> <p>A retrospective chart review of 53 children and adolescents (10 years to 17 years 11 months) who underwent FASD diagnostic assessments with Patches in WA between 2019 and 2020 was conducted. The SCHS had been routinely included as part of diagnostic assessments during this time period. The self-reported total raw scores of all participants, as well as further breakdowns into agency and pathway scores, were calculated by the clinicians. Further sub-groups were defined as individuals who a) were diagnosed with FASD; b) identified as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander; c) were not from metropolitan areas (more than 100 km from Perth); d) were actively engaged in schooling at the time of their assessment and e) were not living with their biological parents at the time of their charges.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-4">Ethics and Procedure</hd> <p>All participants and their legal guardians provided consent/assent to participate in the current study. Ethics approval was granted by the Western Australian Aboriginal Health Ethics Committee, and an Aboriginal community reference group was formed before the commencement of the project. FASD assessment reports were stored on a password protected client record management system with Patches, which only authorised personnel could access. The database was reviewed to collate the number of assessments completed between 2019 and 2020. As a result, 60 participants who did not have a complete Hope Scale assessment were excluded from this study. Reasons for non-completion included partial clinician assessment (e.g. only neuropsychologist or speech pathologist assessment) (<emph>n</emph> = 9), participant not understanding the scale (<emph>n</emph> = 7), participant terminating/disengagement from the interview (<emph>n</emph> = 9) or clinician failure to administer or record the results of the scale (<emph>n</emph> = 35). The data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)-22.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-5">Measures</hd> <p>The SCHS consists of a six-part questionnaire (Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref46">15</reflink>]). The odd-numbered questions relate to agency, and the even-numbered questions relate to pathway (Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref47">15</reflink>]). The scale was provided in a written format, with paediatricians present to clarify participants' questions regarding the scale. Responders rated their responses according to a six-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 'none of the time' (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref48">1</reflink>) to 'all of the time' (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref49">6</reflink>) (Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref50">15</reflink>]). Therefore, the higher a score, the higher the individual's perception of their levels of Hope (Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref51">15</reflink>]). The highest possible total hope score equates to 36 (lowest possible score of 0), with the highest possible subscale scores equating to 18 for each subscale (lowest possible scores again 0) (Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref52">15</reflink>]). Previous studies have examined the reliability of the SCHS and found it acceptable across 225 samples (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref53">8</reflink>]). The average internal consistency score (<emph>N</emph> = 164) was.81, and the test–retest (<emph>N</emph> = 15) at.71 (95% respectively (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref54">8</reflink>]). The test–retest reliability was suggestive of SCHS being an adequate and stable measure over time (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref55">8</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-6">Data Analysis</hd> <p>Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)-22. Descriptive analyses were conducted to explore demographic characteristics. In addition, independent sample t-tests were employed to explore group differences between the subgroups identified above in terms of total hope score, agency score and pathway score.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-7">Results</hd> <p>The demographic characteristics and FASD diagnostic status are outlined in Figure 1. In total, 53 individuals (45 males, 8 females) were included. The mean age of the total sample was 15.45 years old (SD = 1.54; with a range of 12.75 to 17.92 years). Of these, 36 (68%) received a diagnosis of FASD, and 17 (32%) did not meet FASD diagnostic criteria (Bower et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref56">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Demographic characteristics of the total sample.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-8">Cohort Demograhics</hd> <p>Forty-seven individuals (89%) identified as being Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, or Maori; 6 identified as Caucasian (11%), 30 were from rural WA (56%), and 23 (44%) from metropolitan WA – Figure 1. Fifteen individuals (28%) were actively engaged in schooling and 37 (82%) were not actively engaged in schooling at the time of entry into the justice system – Figure 1. Fifty individuals were not living with their biological parents at the time of assessment (94%), and three individuals were living with their biological parents (6%) – Figure 1.</p> <p>Forty-eight participants (90%) had been charged with multiple offences at the time of assessment; the remaining participants (<emph>n</emph> = 5) had one offence at the time of assessment.</p> <p>Forty-nine individuals recorded that they had been trialled or at the time of assessment had been regularly using illicit substances (92%); 4 individuals did not have any history of substance use (8%)- Figure 1. 33 individuals stated that they had trialled or regularly used alcohol (62%), while 14 individuals recorded no history of alcohol use (38%) – Figure 1. The youngest age of commencement of using substances was 9 years old. The youngest age of commencement of alcohol use was also 9 years old, but in a different individual.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-9">Hope Scores</hd> <p>The mean total hope score of the entire cohort was 17.72 (range from 5 to 30, SD = 5.55), mean pathways subscale score was 9.88 (range from 5 to 17, SD = 3.26) and mean agency subscale score was 8.02 (range 3 to 14, SD = 2.81)- Figure 2.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Breakdown of hope scores for the entire cohort, FASD cohort, no FASD cohort, rural vs metropolitan cohorts, and individuals identifying as aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander vs those from a different cultural background.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-10">FASD vs No FASD Diagnosis</hd> <p>There was no significant difference in the total hope scores for individuals diagnosed with FASD (<emph>M</emph> = 17, SD = 5.03) vs those without FASD (<emph>M</emph> = 19.24, SD = 6.40); <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref57">51</reflink>) = −1.38, <emph>p</emph> = 0.173.)- Figure 2. There was a statistically significant difference in the agency subscale score. Specifically, individuals with FASD had a lower agency subscale score (<emph>M</emph> = 7.46, SD 2.68) compared to those without FASD (<emph>M</emph> = 9.18 (SD = 2.81), <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref58">50</reflink>) = −2.14, <emph>p</emph> = 0.038)- Figure 2. Amongst the pathways subscale, there was also no statistical difference between the groups (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref59">50</reflink>) = −1.75, <emph>p</emph> = 0.086), even though individuals with FASD had a lower pathway score (<emph>M</emph> = 9.34, SD = 3.90) than those without FASD (<emph>M</emph> = 11.00, SD = 3.00)- Figure 2.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-11">Rural vs Metropolitan WA</hd> <p>Across the entire cohort, individuals who identified as being from rural areas had a mean total hope scale score of 16.80 (SD = 5.51), whereas individuals from metropolitan areas had a mean total hope scale score of 18.91 (SD = 5.48)- Figure 2. There was no statistically significant difference in total hope scores between the two groups (t(<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref60">51</reflink>) = −1.39, <emph>p</emph> = 0.171). Furthermore, there were no statistical differences between the rural or metropolitan groups with regards to further analyses of pathways or agency scores. With regards to the pathways subscale, there was again no statistical difference, as individuals from rural areas had a mean score of 9.83 (SD = 3.35), while individuals from metropolitan areas had a mean subscore of 9.95 (SD = 3.2; <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref61">50</reflink>) = −1.131, <emph>p</emph> = 0.896)- Figure 2. With regards to the agency subscale, T-tests again showed no difference in scores – individuals from rural areas had a mean subscore of 7.50 (SD = 2.69), while individuals from metropolitan areas had a mean subscale of 8.73 (SD = 2.90, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref62">50</reflink>) = −1.57, <emph>p</emph> = −.122)- Figure 2.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-12">Cultural Backgrounds</hd> <p>The mean total, agency, or pathway hope scores did not differ amongst individuals from different cultural backgrounds across the entire cohort. Individuals identifying as Aboriginal had a mean total hope scale score of 17.87 (SD = 5.18), whereas individuals identifying as Caucasian had a mean total hope scale score of 16.50 (SD = 8.43, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref63">51</reflink>) = 0.56), <emph>p</emph> = 0.573)- Figure 2. The mean pathways subscore for Aboriginal individuals was 10 (SD = 3.14), whereas the mean pathways subscore for Caucasian individuals was 9 (SD = 4.33, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref64">50</reflink>) = 0.70, <emph>p</emph> = 0.486) with no statistical difference- Figure 2. The mean agency subscore for Aboriginal individuals was 8.09 (SD = 2.64), and the mean pathways subscore for Caucasian individuals was 7.50 (SD = 4.23, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref65">50</reflink>) = 0.48, <emph>p</emph> = 0.636)- Figure 2.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-13">Engagement in Schooling</hd> <p>Individuals who engaged in schooling (regardless of FASD diagnosis) at the time of assessment had a mean total hope score of 19.80 (SD = 6.36) compared to 16.89 (SD = 5.09) for individuals not engaged in schooling (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref66">51</reflink>) = 1.75, <emph>p</emph> = 0.086)- Figure 3. The mean pathways subscale score was 11.20 (SD = 3.80) for individuals engaged in schooling compared to 9.35 (SD = 2.91) for individuals not engaged in schooling (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref67">50</reflink>) = 1.90, <emph>p</emph> = 0.064)- Figure 3. The mean agency subscale score was 8.60 (SD = 3.09) for individuals engaged with schooling compared to 7.78 (SD = 2.71) for individuals not engaged with schooling (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref68">50</reflink>) = 0.95, <emph>p</emph> = 0.349)- Figure 3.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Breakdown of hope scores for those engaged with schooling vs those who were not, those living with biological parents vs those who were not, and those reporting a history of alcohol or substance use vs those who were not.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-14">Home Environments</hd> <p>Total mean hope scores for individuals not living with their biological family (regardless of FASD diagnosis) were 17.66 (SD = 5.41), compared to 18.67 (SD = 8.96) for individuals who were living with their nuclear family (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref69">51</reflink>) = −0.30), <emph>p</emph> = 0.763)- Figure 3. Pathways score was 9.92 (SD = 3.21) for individuals not living with their biological nuclear family, compared to 9.33 (SD = 4.93) for individuals living with their nuclear family (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref70">50</reflink>) = 0.39, <emph>p</emph> = 0.766)- Figure 3. The mean agency subscale score was 7.94 (SD = 2.76) for individuals not living with their nuclear family, compared to 9.33 (SD 4.16) for individuals living with their nuclear family (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref71">50</reflink>) = −0.83, <emph>p</emph> = 0.411)- Figure 3. Therefore, there were no differences in pathways or agency scores based on individuals living with their biological parents.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-15">Alcohol and Substance Abuse</hd> <p>Total mean hope scores were 18.03 (SD = 5.69) in individuals who used alcohol, compared to 16.93 (SD = 5.63) in those who had no history of alcohol use (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref72">45</reflink>) = 0.61), <emph>p</emph> = 0.546)- Figure 3. Mean pathway scores were 10 (SD = 3.44) in individuals who had used alcohol regularly prior, compared to 9.57 (SD = 3.35) in individuals with no history of regular alcohol use (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref73">44</reflink>) = 0.39, <emph>p</emph> = 0.697)- Figure 3. Mean agency subscale scores were 7.84 (SD = 2.91) in individuals with prior history of alcohol use vs 8.50 (SD = 2.62) in those who had no history of alcohol use (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref74">44</reflink>) = −0.72, <emph>p</emph> = 0.474)- Figure 3. Total hope scores were 17.57 (SD = 5.49) in those who had a history of substance use, compared to 19.50 (SD = 6.86) in those who had no prior history of substance use (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref75">51</reflink>) = −0.67, <emph>p</emph> = 0.509)- Figure 3. Therefore, there were no statistical differences arising in total, pathway, or agency scores between groups who had used alcohol or substances versus those who had abstained.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-16">Discussion</hd> <p>Our study aimed to characterise the levels of hope in youth living with FASD who were engaged in the justice system in Western Australia. Internationally, many countries have sought to utilise the SCHS as a measure of well-being amongst children (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref76">8</reflink>]; Savahl, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref77">12</reflink>]; Savahl et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref78">13</reflink>]; Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref79">20</reflink>]). A recent review of the findings of 225 published works between 1997 and 2018 found that the reliability generalisation of the SCHS was acceptable across samples (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref80">8</reflink>]). In this review, the mean total SCHS was 25.64 (SD = 4.92) (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref81">8</reflink>]). The average age of their participants was 13.51 years old, 47.56% were male, and 26.29% were Caucasian (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref82">8</reflink>]). Our study's mean total hope score was 17.72, which was 7.92 points lower (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref83">8</reflink>]). We had an older mean age (15.45 years vs 13.51 years), a larger proportion of male participants, as well as a larger representation of non-Caucasian participants (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref84">8</reflink>]. Importantly, recent research has also found an increased risk of suicidality in a larger cohort of justice involved youth with FASD in Western Australia, from which the current study cohort was sampled (Tan, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref85">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>The difference between mean total hope scores and pathway subscale scores between the individuals with a diagnosis of FASD and no diagnosis of FASD was not statistically significant. However, there was a significant negative difference between the groups for the agency subscale in clients diagnosed with FASD. It is recognised that FASD may impact executive functioning, including planning (Mukherjee et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref86">11</reflink>]). Given that agency quantifies an individual's ability to form goals and the motivation required to attain them, the statistical difference in agency scores may reflect adverse impacts on organisation, planning, prioritising, and starting tasks that FASD confers (Mukherjee et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref87">11</reflink>]; Snyder et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref88">15</reflink>]). Improving external scaffolding and support to foster an individual's agency and assist them with their executive functioning may help augment this impact of FASD. For example, it has been previously documented that caring teachers and supportive parents make important positive contributions to schooling success in adolescents with FASD (Flannigan et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref89">5</reflink>]). They also documented that in adults diagnosed with FASD within the justice system, consistent social supports and mentorship were valuable tools to support growth and success for the individuals (Flannigan et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref90">5</reflink>]). These interventions show that external supports assist individuals with FASD in forming goals and aid in providing the ongoing motivation to achieve them (Flannigan et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref91">5</reflink>]). At the community level, families of children with FASD have also cited a lack of community and professional awareness of the syndrome as contributing to lower levels of hope for themselves as compared to other neurodiverse conditions (e.g. autism spectrum disorder and down syndrome) (Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref92">21</reflink>]). Families face difficulties in accessing diagnosis or interventions and have reported lower levels of hope for research or cures in the future (Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref93">21</reflink>]). Therefore, we also recommend increasing communities (such as school system) and professional awareness of FASD to improve the levels of confidence and hope in families supporting individuals with FASD.</p> <p>Previously, the adult Snyder's Hope Scale has been used to establish normative data for Australian adolescents across metropolitan and regional areas in South Australia (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref94">20</reflink>]). Direct comparison to our study is tempered as they used the adult version of Snyder's Hope Scale (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref95">20</reflink>]). However, their study found that older adolescents and female participants had lower hope pathway scores than their younger or male counterparts (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref96">20</reflink>]). Other studies have found no age or sex differences in their cohorts with the Children's Hope Scale (Merkaš & Brajša-Žganec, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref97">10</reflink>]). Lower hope pathway scores have been recorded in regional Australian adolescents compared to metropolitan Australian adolescents (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref98">20</reflink>]). No significant differences in agency scores were found in their study (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref99">20</reflink>]). We found that total hope and agency scores were lower across regional areas; however, the differences were not statistically significant. Pathway scores were comparable between the regional and metropolitan groups in our cohort. Meaningful interpretation of the impact of sex on hope scores was difficult to make within our study, as our cohort only had eight female participants compared to 45 male participants. We also did not assess the impact of age on scores, however, given that the mean age of our participants was older and our mean hope scores lower, the impact of age on scores would be another important avenue for future research (Venning et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref100">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>Total, agency, and pathway hope scores were lower but not significantly different in Caucasian children than Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander or Maori children in our study. Studies of hope levels in Native American populations have shown similar results from their cohort to the standardisation sample, suggesting no differences in scores amongst different cultural backgrounds (Shadlow et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref101">14</reflink>]). Similarly, the demonstrated reliability generalisation of the Snyder's Hope Scale lends itself to standardised applications across many cultural backgrounds (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref102">8</reflink>]). Therefore, our results are in keeping with the expectation that there would be no statistically significant differences between Caucasian, Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, or Maori children in our study.</p> <p>Although there were no statistical differences found in total, pathway or agency scores for individuals engaged in schooling versus those who did not, the difference in pathway scores does approach statistical significance and may be worth exploring further with a larger sample size. It has previously been demonstrated that high hope scores positively affect grades (Ciarrochi et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref103">3</reflink>]). We would postulate that the external role modelling and assistance in creating and achieving goals provided by formal education would assist in increasing levels of hope. Additionally, our study has a higher percentage of participants identifying as Aboriginal. Poorer educational experiences and outcomes of Aboriginal children in the Western Australian education system are well-documented (Zubrick & Silburn, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref104">22</reflink>]). Factors such as geographical dispersion, use of standard Australian English as a second language, a high degree of chronic health conditions, intergenerational disadvantages and systemic racism are all known to contribute to poorer outcomes (Zubrick & Silburn, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref105">22</reflink>]). Given that 89% of our cohort identified as Aboriginal and 82% also identified as disengaged from formal education, we would postulate that a significant proportion of our participants would experience these disadvantages. Future research into pathways to subscale scores would assist in targeting therapeutic interventions in the schoolroom if found to be significant.</p> <p>Previously, it has been reported that children with high hope reported higher levels of family cohesion and external support (Merkaš & Brajša-Žganec, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref106">10</reflink>]). No hope scores (total, pathway or agency) were statistically significant among the cohorts of participants living with their biological nuclear family at the time of assessment or those not in our study. Our cohort was heavily weighted towards those not living with their biological nuclear family at the time of assessment (93%). Given this weighting, this would likely result in inaccurate comparisons between the two groups in itself. Regarding those who were not living with biological family members; our study did not differentiate between participants living with extended relatives in long-term stable arrangements, participants with stable foster attachments or participants with unstable familial unattachments. It also did not consider the kinship system in which individuals of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent may be brought up, in which child-rearing is regarded as the collective responsibility of a community rather than of just the nuclear family (Lohoar et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref107">9</reflink>]). Therefore, more research is needed to delineate further how stable social cohesion, positive role-modelling, and strong guardianship relationships may affect hope in Australian adolescents, especially within the context of kinship systems.</p> <p>No statistically significant differences between total, agency or pathway hope scores were found in our study between individuals who had used alcohol and substances in the past and those who had not. Again, our cohorts were heavily weighted, with 92% of our clients stating they had used substances and 62% stating they had used alcohol. This may, again, affect results. Given the known effects of alcohol and substance use on developing brains, we hypothesise that the younger age of first use, increasing amounts of use, and a prolonged period of use may affect adult hope scores in the future (Spear, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref108">17</reflink>]). However, this was not in the scope of our study, although an important one for future research.</p> <p>Limitations of our study included a small sample size, making detecting significant differences between subgroups less likely. Also, a sex and cultural bias may have been apparent in our sample, as 84.9% of our participants were male, and 88.6% of our participants also identified as Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, or Maori. These factors may bias our results as the population groups are not analogous to the broader Australian adolescent population. Similarly, a bias towards clients who were disengaged from schooling, not living with their biological parents, and who were more likely to use substances and alcohol are likely to limit direct comparisons between groups in our study.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-17">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study provides the first descriptive data of hope in the justice system involved young people. We report low levels of hope overall relative to international data from a meta analysis (Hellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref109">8</reflink>]). Our study found a statistical difference in the agency component of hope levels in individuals diagnosed with FASD in the justice system. This may relate to the effect on executive functioning, such as organisation and planning, which FASD may confer (Mukherjee et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref110">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>We recommend that therapeutic options for individuals diagnosed with FASD within the justice system should receive greater emphasis on external support and scaffolding in the form of mentors, consistent and supportive school systems, and culturally appropriate role models (Flannigan et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref111">5</reflink>]). Support should also be provided for a strength-based and trauma informed approach (Flannigan et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref112">5</reflink>]; Hamilton et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref113">6</reflink>]; G. K. Y. Tan et al.,). Within the families and communities supporting these individuals, we recommend increased community and professional education, awareness, and acceptance of FASD to assist in increasing community support as well (Watson et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref114">21</reflink>]). These recommendations are based on improving hope as a therapeutic capital in individuals diagnosed with FASD, and their families, in the justice system.</p> <p>Future research on the interplay between school engagement and hope scores across the broader Australian population would also be recommended to see if targeted interventions to improve school engagement can lead to improved outcomes for Australian adolescents. Further work on family cohesion and living arrangements, especially in the context of kinship systems, will also help to inform any future recommendations for interventions that can target support for families who are themselves supporting individuals with FASD. We are ourselves hopeful that targeted intervention at this time-critical stage in a young adolescent's life will act to improve future trajectories on educational and occupational achievements, mental health, and work to improve the inter-generational impact of FASD as our young adolescents go on to have families, and become positive role models of their own.</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-18">Disclosure Statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <hd id="AN0191629654-19">Acknowledgement</hd> <p>The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the Patches Aboriginal Advisory Group for their advice, insights and cultural inputs into this study.</p> <ref id="AN0191629654-20"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref33" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Bower, C., Elliott, E. J., Zimmet, M., Doorey, J., Wilkins, A., Russell, V., Shelton, D., Fitzpatrick, J., & Watkins, R. (2017). Australian guide to the diagnosis of foetal alcohol spectrum disorder: A summary. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 53 (10), 1021. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.13625</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref29" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Bower, C., Watkins, R. E., Mutch, R. C., Marriott, R., Freeman, J., Kippin, N. R., Safe, B., Pestell, C., Cheung, C. S., & Shield, H. (2018). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and youth justice: A prevalence study among young people sentenced to detention in Western Australia. BMJ Open, 8 (2), e019605. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019605</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref5" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C., & Davies, F. (2007). The impact of hope, self-esteem, and attributional style on adolescents' school grades and emotional well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Personality, 41 (6), 1161 – 1178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.02.001</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref12" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Dixson, D. D., Worrell, F. C., & Mello, Z. (2017). Profiles of hope: How clusters of hope relate to school variables. Learning & Individual Differences, 59, 55 – 64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.08.011</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref89" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Flannigan, K., Harding, K., Reid, D., & Committee, F. A. (2018). Strengths among individuals with FASD. In: Canada FASD Research Network. https://canfasd.ca/wpcontent/uploads</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref14" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Hamilton, S. L., Maslen, S., Best, D., Freeman, J., O'Donnell, M., Reibel, T., Mutch, R., & Watkins, R. (2020). Putting 'justice' in recovery capital: Yarning about hopes and futures with young people in detention. International Journal for Crime, Justice & Social Democracy, 9 (2), 20. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v9i2.1256</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref34" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Haroz, E. E., Jordans, M., de Jong, J., Gross, A., Bass, J., & Tol, W. (2017). Measuring hope among children affected by armed conflict: Cross-cultural construct validity of the children's hope scale. Assessment, 24 (4), 528 – 539. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115612924</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref19" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Hellman, C. M., Munoz, R. T., Worley, J. A., Feeley, J. A., & Gillert, J. E. (2018). A reliability generalization on the Children's hope scale. Child Indicators Research, 11 (4), 1193 – 1200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-017-9467-6</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref107" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Lohoar, S., Butera, N., & Kennedy, E. (2014). Strengths of Australian Aboriginal cultural practices in family life and child rearing. Australian Institute of Family Studies Melbourne.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Merkaš, M., & Brajša-Žganec, A. (2011). Children with different levels of hope: Are there differences in their self-esteem, life satisfaction, social support, and family cohesion? Child Indicators Research, 4 (3), 499 – 514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-011-9105-7</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mukherjee, R. A., Hollins, S., & Turk, J. (2006). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: An overview. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 99 (6), 298 – 302. https://doi.org/10.1177/014107680609900616</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Savahl, S. (2020). Children's hope in South Africa: A population-based study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01023</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Savahl, S., Isaacs, S., Adams, S., Carels, C. Z., & September, R. (2013). An exploration into the impact of exposure to community violence and hope on children's perceptions of well-being: A South African perspective. Child Indicators Research, 6 (3), 579 – 592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-013-9183-9</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shadlow, J. O., Boles, R. E., Roberts, M. C., & Winston, L. (2015). Native American children and their reports of hope: Construct validation of the Children's hope scale. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 24 (6), 1707 – 1714. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9974-8</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Snyder, C. R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Rapoff, M., Ware, L., Danovsky, M., Highberger, L., Ribinstein, H., & Stahl, K. J. (1997). The development and validation of the Children's hope scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22 (3), 399 – 421. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/22.3.399</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sparks, L. A., Trentacosta, C. J., Hicks, M. R., Kernsmith, P., & Smith-Darden, J. (2021). 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Adverse childhood experiences, associated stressors and comorbidities in children and youth with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder across the justice and child protection settings in Western Australia. BMC Pediatrics, 22, 587).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Venning, A. J., Eliott, J., Kettler, L., & Wilson, A. (2009). Normative data for the hope scale using Australian adolescents. Australian Journal of Psychology, 61 (2), 100 – 106. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530802054360</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Watson, S., Hayes, S., Radford-Paz, E., & Coons, K. (2013). "I'm hoping, I'm hoping...": Thoughts about the future from families of children with autism or fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in Ontario. Journal on Developmental Disabilities, 19 (3). 76 – 93</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zubrick, S., & Silburn, S. (2006). Western Australian aboriginal child health survey: Improving the educational experiences of aboriginal children and young people. Telethon Institute for Child Health Research and Curtin University of Technology.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Nadia Tan; Kuen Yee Tan; Carmela F. Pestell and James P. Fitzpatrick</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref86"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref97"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref104"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref108"></nolink>
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  Data: Exploring Hope in Australian Justice Involved Youth with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
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  Data: English
– Name: Author
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Nadia+Tan%22">Nadia Tan</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7847-9061">0000-0002-7847-9061</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kuen+Yee+Tan%22">Kuen Yee Tan</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2727-1471">0000-0002-2727-1471</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Carmela+F%2E+Pestell%22">Carmela F. Pestell</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1737-7774">0000-0002-1737-7774</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22James+P%2E+Fitzpatrick%22">James P. Fitzpatrick</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0384-3233">0000-0003-0384-3233</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22International+Journal+of+Disability%2C+Development+and+Education%22"><i>International Journal of Disability, Development and Education</i></searchLink>. 2026 73(2):355-366.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: 12
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  Data: 2026
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Fetal+Alcohol+Syndrome%22">Fetal Alcohol Syndrome</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Empowerment%22">Empowerment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Expectation%22">Expectation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Delinquency%22">Delinquency</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Individual+Characteristics%22">Individual Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Indigenous+Populations%22">Indigenous Populations</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Structure%22">Family Structure</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Substance+Abuse%22">Substance Abuse</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Attainment%22">Educational Attainment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Place+of+Residence%22">Place of Residence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Clinical+Diagnosis%22">Clinical Diagnosis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Rural+Urban+Differences%22">Rural Urban Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Differences%22">Cultural Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Environment%22">Family Environment</searchLink>
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  Label: Geographic Terms
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Australia%22">Australia</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
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  Data: 10.1080/1034912X.2024.2427611
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  Data: 1034-912X<br />1465-346X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Hope is well recognised as a positive protective factor for mental health, improved coping responses to adverse childhood events and better educational outcomes. Hope is composed of synergistic constituents -- agency and pathway. A retrospective chart review was conducted of 53 justice-involved youths (10-17 years old) who underwent Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) diagnostic assessments with Patches in Western Australia between 2019 and 2020. Snyder's Children's Hope Scale was included as part of the diagnostic assessment. There was a statistically significant difference (p = 0.038) for the agency subscale score between those diagnosed with FASD versus those without FASD. As agency quantifies an individual's goal-setting capacity and the motivation to achieve goals, it is possible that the impacts of FASD on executive functioning are reflected in lower scores. Factors such as cultural background, schooling engagement, previous alcohol/substance use or rurality did not significantly affect hope scores. It is recommended that justice-involved youths diagnosed with FASD receive specific training to encourage executive functioning skills and external support from consistent, supportive and culturally safe school systems and adult role models. This cohort is at a developmental stage where resilience, executive functioning skills, and community support can positively impact mental health and future trajectories.
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  Label: Entry Date
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  Data: 2026
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1504068
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1504068
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        Value: 10.1080/1034912X.2024.2427611
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 355
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Empowerment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Expectation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Delinquency
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Individual Characteristics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Indigenous Populations
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family Structure
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Substance Abuse
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Attainment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Place of Residence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Clinical Diagnosis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Rural Urban Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cultural Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Australia
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Exploring Hope in Australian Justice Involved Youth with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
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      – PersonEntity:
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            NameFull: Nadia Tan
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kuen Yee Tan
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Carmela F. Pestell
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: James P. Fitzpatrick
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1034-912X
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1465-346X
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 73
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: International Journal of Disability, Development and Education
              Type: main
ResultId 1