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Barriers and Facilitators in Accessing Education in Mainstream Schools for Children with Disabilities in Bangladesh: A Qualitative Secondary Data Analysis

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Title: Barriers and Facilitators in Accessing Education in Mainstream Schools for Children with Disabilities in Bangladesh: A Qualitative Secondary Data Analysis
Language: English
Authors: Reshma Parvin Nuri (ORCID 0000-0002-9078-5088), Heather Michelle Aldersey (ORCID 0000-0001-7763-5934), Setareh Ghahari (ORCID 0000-0001-5519-2896), Ebenezer Dassah
Source: International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 2026 73(1):1-18.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Barriers, Affordances, Access to Education, Mainstreaming, Inclusion, Students with Disabilities, Special Schools, Resources, Social Bias, Attitudes toward Disabilities
Geographic Terms: Bangladesh
DOI: 10.1080/1034912X.2024.2417287
ISSN: 1034-912X
1465-346X
Abstract: Promoting access to mainstream schools for children with disabilities has been highlighted in national and international legislative and policy initiatives. However, children with disabilities' access to mainstream school remains an important challenge, particularly in low and middle-income countries, such as Bangladesh. We explored barriers and facilitators in accessing education for children with disabilities through a secondary analysis of qualitative data. Results indicate that children with disabilities experience challenges in their endeavour to access education, including stigma, discrimination, inaccessible built environment, and teachers' negative attitudes towards children with disabilities. However, support from different sources, specifically parents' strong motivation towards their child's education and peer support, are great facilitators for children with disabilities in accessing education. We conclude with recommendations for support for parents to advocate for the rights of their children with disabilities in mainstream schools. We also recommend that government should invest resources to make mainstream schools disability friendly. In particular, accessible classrooms and washrooms are essential to enable in-class participation of children with disabilities. Further, investment is needed for teachers' training on teaching disabled children in mainstream schools. A collaborative approach between policymakers, teachers, professionals, and parents is imperative to achieve inclusive education.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1504284
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0190413003;54q01jan.26;2025Dec24.08:08;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0190413003-1">Barriers and Facilitators in Accessing Education in Mainstream Schools for Children with Disabilities in Bangladesh: A Qualitative Secondary Data Analysis </title> <p>Promoting access to mainstream schools for children with disabilities has been highlighted in national and international legislative and policy initiatives. However, children with disabilities' access to mainstream school remains an important challenge, particularly in low and middle-income countries, such as Bangladesh. We explored barriers and facilitators in accessing education for children with disabilities through a secondary analysis of qualitative data. Results indicate that children with disabilities experience challenges in their endeavour to access education, including stigma, discrimination, inaccessible built environment, and teachers' negative attitudes towards children with disabilities. However, support from different sources, specifically parents' strong motivation towards their child's education and peer support, are great facilitators for children with disabilities in accessing education. We conclude with recommendations for support for parents to advocate for the rights of their children with disabilities in mainstream schools. We also recommend that government should invest resources to make mainstream schools disability friendly. In particular, accessible classrooms and washrooms are essential to enable in-class participation of children with disabilities. Further, investment is needed for teachers' training on teaching disabled children in mainstream schools. A collaborative approach between policymakers, teachers, professionals, and parents is imperative to achieve inclusive education.</p> <p>Keywords: Children with disabilities; inclusive education; low and middle-income countries; parents advocacy; sustainable development goals</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Both national and international bodies recognise education as a fundamental human right (National Education Policy, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref1">29</reflink>], United Nations, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref2">48</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref3">49</reflink>]). However, children with disabilities often experience barriers to accessing education. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), around 90% of children with disabilities in developing countries do not have access to formal education (United Nations, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref4">51</reflink>]). Further, children with disabilities may have had access to education in the early stages of their lives but are sometimes forced to leave school later due to a wide range of physical, environmental, and attitudinal barriers (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref5">44</reflink>]; UNICEF, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref6">45</reflink>]). Consequently, this can limit their opportunity to enter the labour market and thus force them to be financially dependent on others.</p> <p>The Salamanca Statement on Education for All highlights the need to provide education for all children in inclusive schools to foster an inclusive world (UNESCO, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref7">43</reflink>]). The importance of an inclusive education system is further reinforced in Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4), which seeks to develop an equitable, inclusive and quality education system for all children by the year 2030. The implementation of inclusive schools has been a significant goal in many countries, including Bangladesh (National Education Policy, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref8">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>Over the last few decades, Bangladesh, a lower-middle-income country located in South Asia, has made remarkable progress in achieving primary school enrolment for children. Still, the country is far behind in ensuring education for individuals with disabilities. For example, according to the Situation Analysis on Children with Disabilities, only 11% of children with disabilities received any form of education in Bangladesh, even though the overall primary school enrolment rate is 97% (UNICEF Bangladesh, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref9">47</reflink>]). Thus, this indicates that children with disabilities encounter significant barriers in accessing education in Bangladesh. Therefore, further research is required to examine family members' perspectives on access to education for children with disabilities in Bangladesh. Deepening our understanding of this topic is essential to promote greater access to education for children with disabilities in Bangladesh and elsewhere. Such knowledge is required to facilitate the attainment of SDG 4 that focuses on inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all, as a key ingredient in sustainable development (United Nations, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref10">50</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-3">The Education System in Bangladesh and the Government's Initiatives Towards Education for Chi...</hd> <p>According to the constitution of Bangladesh, primary education (Grade 1–5) is compulsory and free for all; however, girls continue to receive free education up to higher secondary level (Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref11">16</reflink>]). Besides the government, many other institutions provide education in Bangladesh, ranging from government-funded public schools to independent private schools. The government of Bangladesh has enacted policy, including the National Education Policy in 2010, that recognises disability and the need for children with disabilities to receive education (National Education Policy, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref12">29</reflink>]). The policy supports explicitly disability-friendly environments in school premises, flexibility in curriculum, and distribution of educational materials free of cost or at a subsidised price for students with disabilities. The policy also stresses the importance of educating teachers about how to teach students with disabilities. For instance, Article 18 of the policy emphasises that at least one teacher from each school will receive training on how to teach students with disabilities (National Education Policy, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref13">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>The government of Bangladesh has also implemented a series of Primary Education Development Programs to facilitate education for marginalised children, including those with disabilities. The Third Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP-III) focuses on reducing disparities to achieve education for all through the provision of grants in assisting schools in modifying infrastructure (e.g. ramps and modified classroom furniture) that will make it accessible for children with disabilities (Ministry of Social Welfare, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref14">28</reflink>]). Again, the government of Bangladesh introduced an education stipend for students with disabilities to ensure universal education for all (Ministry of Social Welfare, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref15">28</reflink>]). Despite this progress, children with disabilities are far behind in accessing education compared to their counterparts without disabilities (UNICEF Bangladesh, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref16">47</reflink>]). Therefore, we aimed to answer the following research question: what are the barriers and facilitators in accessing education for children with disabilities in Bangladesh?</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-4">Literature Review</hd> <p>In the past years, a number of studies globally have explored children with disabilities' access to education. These studies have revealed that children with disabilities experience numerous challenges in accessing education, including poverty, discriminatory policies, inaccessible built environment, negative attitudes and lack of resources (Adugna et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref17">1</reflink>]; Lamichhane & Kawakatsu, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref18">25</reflink>]; Okyere, Aldersey, & Lysaght, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref19">31</reflink>]; Zulfiqar et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref20">54</reflink>]). For instance, when parents are proactive about education and actively seek admission for their child with a disability, they are often denied because of discriminatory policies or teachers' negative attitudes towards disability (Ahsan & Mullick, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref21">2</reflink>]; Malak, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref22">26</reflink>]). In a Bangladeshi study, teachers expressed concern about admitting children with disabilities in a mainstream school because of extra workloads, large class sizes and interruption of regular students' progress due to the presence of students with disabilities (Malak, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref23">26</reflink>]). Similarly, in a study that was conducted in India, a mother of a child with a disability was told not to send her child with a disability to school because the child was unable to sit quietly in the classroom and not to be able to think like the average students (Singal, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref24">40</reflink>]).</p> <p>While children with disabilities experience challenges, gender seems to have a significant role in access to education – a girl with disability experiences more difficulties accessing education due to disability and gender stereotypes. For instance, a study in Ghana found that girls with intellectual disabilities were unable to give their best in classroom activities or homework because of their gender role in the family (e.g. fetch water, wash bowls, or sell products) (Okyere, Aldersey, & Lysaght, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref25">31</reflink>]). Additionally, girls with disabilities are at higher risk of physical and sexual violence at school, which also impedes their access to education (Devries et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref26">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>At the same time, studies also revealed factors that facilitate children with disabilities' access to education, including parental support, an accessible environment and teachers' positive attitudes towards disability. These studies found that many parents are actively involved in advocating for educational rights for their children with disabilities and are successful in securing more support at different levels (Rossetti et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref27">37</reflink>]; Wright & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref28">52</reflink>]). Furthermore, a supportive school environment is essential for students with disabilities to continue their education. Specifically, teachers' positive attitudes and their ability to teach students with disabilities can enhance learners' positive experiences at school (Pather, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref29">34</reflink>]). Additionally, disability-friendly school premises are key for learners with disabilities to succeed in their academic work. Research also identified the role of community members in facilitating the education of children with disabilities. For example, in a study conducted in South Africa, the school collected donations from local businesses or community members in the absence of support and funding from government entities and built concrete ramps at each classroom door to enable greater access and mobility for students using wheelchairs (Pather, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref30">34</reflink>]). Taken together, these studies have enhanced our understanding of factors that hinder or facilitate children with disabilities' access to education; however, studies are limited in the Bangladeshi context – a gap that informed this exploration.</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-5">Method</hd> <p>We conducted a qualitative secondary analysis to address the objective of the study. This approach involves an in-depth exploration of a new topic that has emerged from an original qualitative study (Heaton, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref31">23</reflink>]; Ruggiano & Perry, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref32">38</reflink>]; Ziebland & Hunt, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref33">53</reflink>]). We adopted this approach to maximise the use of primary data that could be informative for policy decision-making (Ziebland & Hunt, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref34">53</reflink>]). We conducted a secondary analysis using data from a primary qualitative study that explored families' experiences in accessing government-led support (i.e. education, disability allowances and rehabilitation services) for their children with disabilities in Bangladesh. Further details regarding the methods are reported elsewhere (Nuri et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref35">30</reflink>]).</p> <p>To summarise, the study was conducted with family members who sought rehabilitation services for their children with disabilities at the Centre for the Rehabilitation of the Paralysed (CRP) in Bangladesh. CRP is a non-profit organisation that offers rehabilitation services to persons with disabilities, including children. Ethical clearances for the original study were obtained from the Health Sciences and Affiliated Hospitals Research Ethics Board, Queen's University, Canada (reference number: 6024484) and the Ethical Review Board at CRP (reference number: CRP-R&E-0401-231). We also obtained ethical clearance from Queen's University for secondary analysis of primary data (reference number: 6033071).</p> <p>Participants were selected purposively to obtain a maximum-variation sample of demographic characteristics, including age, sex, education, living area, relationship to children with disabilities, and income. In terms of data collection, the first author conducted semi‐structured 45-minute interviews at CRP, which were recorded electronically with the consent of the participants. The interviews included questions related to barriers and facilitators in accessing government support for children with disabilities in Bangladesh. Examples of questions that were asked in the original study are: Tell me about your experiences in accessing government support for children with disabilities; Tell me about any barriers or facilitators you have encountered in accessing government support; Tell me how the barriers (if any) have impacted your child or your family? What strategies have you used to mitigate these barriers? The interviewer also took detailed field notes for non-verbal cues (during interviews) and wrote reflections after each interview. The interviewer repeatedly used prompts to facilitate the elicitation of more information or clarification of certain concepts used by participants. In the original study, the primary focus was to highlight family members' experiences accessing a disability allowance [monthly cash transfer] and rehabilitation services for children with disabilities with little emphasis on education. Given the rich and detailed insights related to education access that we identified in the larger study and the importance that participants placed on this aspect of government support, we saw value in returning to the original data to gain a deeper understanding of this key issue. For the secondary data analysis, we analysed data thematically using the steps outlined by Braun and Clarke ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref36">7</reflink>]), including familiarising with the data, generating codes, identifying themes by merging similar codes and writing the report. The details of the steps are provided in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1. Steps taken for secondary analysis of data.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td><bold>Step 1</bold> - Began the analysis by reading the interview transcripts several times to become familiar with the data, and we also noted initial analytic observations; <bold>Step 2</bold> - Engaged in open line-by-line coding of the transcripts to identify dominant ideas and draft codes. We proceeded to develop a coding guide that included all of the codes or labels from the transcripts; <bold>Step 3</bold> - Grouped similar codes to search for possible themes and sub-themes; <bold>Step 4</bold> - Checked for the identified themes and sub-themes about the coded extracts and the entire data set; <bold>Step 5</bold> - Defined and named the themes and sub-themes while writing the overall findings that the analysis revealed; and <bold>Step 6</bold> - Produced a report that reflected the objective of the study (i.e. access to education in mainstream schools for children with disabilities). The research team worked collaboratively throughout the data analysis process and came to a consensus on the final themes and subthemes.</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>We ensured rigour through reflexivity, multiple peer briefing meetings, the use of NVivo software to organise and analyse all the data, and consensus on the final themes. Finally, we conducted the current study following the consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ) guidelines (Tong et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref37">42</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-6">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0190413003-7">Participant Characteristics</hd> <p>A total of 27 family members (ranging in age from 21–50 years) participated in the study. A majority of the participants (<emph>n</emph> = 19) were biological mothers of children with disabilities. In terms of child characteristics, half of the children (<emph>n</emph> = 14) were diagnosed with cerebral palsy, and a quarter of them had autism spectrum disorder. One-third of the children with disabilities had never been to school (further details can be found in Table 2). Interviews with family members revealed several barriers and facilitators to accessing education for children with disabilities in mainstream schools. For facilitators, we arrived at two themes, and to understand the barriers, we found three themes (see Figure 1). We provided supportive quotations from the participants to highlight the themes.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Themes related to access to education for children with disabilities in Bangladesh.</p> <p>Table 2. Study participants' characteristics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Participant's characteristics</td><td>n (%)</td><td>Characteristics of children with disabilities</td><td>n (%)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Age of respondents (years)</td><td /><td>Age of children with disabilities (years)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Mean age (range)</td><td>31 (21–50)</td><td>Mean age in years (range)</td><td>8.4 (2–18)</td></tr><tr><td>Sex of respondents</td><td /><td>Sex</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Female</td><td>22 (81.5)</td><td> Female</td><td>13 (48.1)</td></tr><tr><td> Male</td><td>5 (18.5)</td><td> Male</td><td>14 (51.9)</td></tr><tr><td>Education</td><td /><td>Education</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Up to primary</td><td>6 (22.2)</td><td> Not at school-going age</td><td>6 (22.2)</td></tr><tr><td> Secondary to higher secondary</td><td>18 (66.7)</td><td> Never been to school</td><td>10 (37.0)</td></tr><tr><td> Bachelor's degree or higher</td><td>3 (11.1)</td><td> Primary (Grade I-V)</td><td>9 (33.3)</td></tr><tr><td>Living area</td><td /><td> Secondary (Grade VI-X)</td><td>2 (7.4)</td></tr><tr><td> Rural</td><td>20 (74.1)</td><td>Type of disability</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Urban</td><td>7 (25.9</td><td> Cerebral Palsy</td><td>14 (51.9)</td></tr><tr><td>Relationship to the child with a disability</td><td /><td> Autism Spectrum Disorder</td><td>7 (25.9)</td></tr><tr><td> Mother</td><td>19 (70.4)</td><td> Others (spinal cord injury, speech problem,muscular dystrophy)</td><td>6 (22.2)</td></tr><tr><td> Father</td><td>5 (18.5)</td><td>Assistive devices at the time of interview</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Grandmother</td><td>2 (7.4)</td><td> Special Seat</td><td>1 (3.7)</td></tr><tr><td> Sibling</td><td>1 (3.7)</td><td> Wheelchair</td><td>6 (22.2)</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td> Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis</td><td>1 (3.7)</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td> None</td><td>19 (70.4)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0190413003-8">Facilitators in Accessing Education for Children with Disabilities</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0190413003-9">Availability of Support from Different Sources</hd> <p>Access to support from families and external sources contributed to children with disabilities' education in Bangladesh. The support came from different levels that ranged from immediate family to that of the policy environment.</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-10">Support from Immediate Family</hd> <p>Strong support from the immediate family, particularly from parents of the child with a disability, was instrumental in enabling children with disabilities to participate in education. While family members discussed their hardships after having a child with a disability, they discussed their determination to support the development and education of their child with a disability. At the same time, some family members noted that they gave up their own wellbeing, ignored their health issues and moved to a different place to ensure good education for their child with a disability. For instance, a participant recounted:</p> <p>I moved to the capital city with my child because of his education and treatment. Here [capital city] you have everything for children with disabilities but in my village, nothing is available for them [children with disabilities]. Although none of my in-laws were happy with my decision, except my husband, I took that decision because I wanted him to get the best education. [Mother of an adolescent boy with cerebral palsy]</p> <p>Additionally, the availability of resources in the family helped some children in accessing education. For instance, family resources facilitated some participants to pay for personal support assistants who were needed for children with disabilities to participate in their classroom. A mother of a child with cerebral palsy noted:</p> <p>Because I got financial support from my husband, I was able to hire an assistant who provides necessary support to my daughter at school. The assistant goes to school with my daughter and stays with her in the classroom from 9:00 am to 2:00 pm. My daughter can't sit independently, but it is mandatory for every student to sit in a chair. So, the lady I hired basically holds my daughter so that she [child with a disability] can sit on the chair during classes. [Mother of a girl with cerebral palsy]</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-11">Support from External Sources</hd> <p>Support from external sources (e.g. government and non-governmental organisations, service providers and donors) was instrumental for children with disabilities' participation in schools. This support was both tangible (e.g. money) and intangible (e.g. encouragement). The tangible support, such as monetary contributions, helped families to offset some of the costs associated with education for their children with disabilities.</p> <p>I am so lucky because one donor gives my daughter BDT 2000 (US$23.59) per month for her education. This is a huge support for us because the money is used to buy her educational materials such as pens, books and school dresses. Sometimes I also use that money to buy her medicine for the treatment of her disability, such as epilepsy. [A single mother of an adolescent girl with cerebral palsy]</p> <p>Additionally, participants reported that intangible support, such as encouragement and positive attitudes towards children with disabilities, were great facilitators for some children with disabilities in accessing education.</p> <p>I like the attitudes of the teachers at my daughter's school. I learned that the headteacher at the school studied disability outside the country. He is very knowledgeable and welcomes children with disabilities in his school. He told us that if they get a certain number of students with disabilities, they will recruit special educators for them [students with disabilities]. I do understand their limitations. They do not have enough funds to recruit a special educator only for my daughter. My daughter feels comfortable going to her school. [A mother of a girl with a disability]</p> <p>Some participants also discussed support from external sources in the form of knowledge sharing. Specifically, participants mentioned that they attended training that enhanced their understanding and knowledge about the educational rights of children with disabilities. A participant who was inspired from a training recounted:</p> <p>I attended a training that was focused on disability. Through that training, I learned that children with disabilities have the right to education. I also learned that people with disabilities have the right to work. Additionally, in my training, I saw that people with disabilities were working in an office environment. The training inspired me to step up for my son's education. During my training, I committed to providing all kinds of support to my son to get through with his education. [Father of a child with a mobility impairment]</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-12">Support from Other Students without Disabilities</hd> <p>Many participants reported very positive attitudes from students without disabilities. Participants specifically indicated that students without disabilities were helpful and willing to make friends with children with disabilities. Further, participants mentioned that they received practical support from other students without disability in navigating inaccessible built environments. A female participant said:</p> <p>My son's classroom is on the 2<sups>nd</sups> floor, and it is difficult for me to carry him [child with a disability] upstairs. Sometimes other students help me to carry him [child with a disability] to his classroom. [Mother of a child with a severe disability]</p> <p>Another mother described how peer buddy sometimes helped her son with a disability to go to school:</p> <p>As I run a small business, sometimes I can't take my son [child with a disability] to his school. My son's classmates always come to our place and take him to school. They also push his wheelchair when it is stuck in mud. [Mother of a child with a disability]</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-13">Availability of Rehabilitation Services in School Premises</hd> <p>Participants reported that the availability of rehabilitation services in school premises was a motivating factor in sending their children with disabilities to school. Participants further noted that education and therapy services are equally important for a child with a disability. They preferred schools with all kinds of facilities because it saved time and money associated with travel to two different places. Participants also noted that the availability of therapy services, especially occupational therapy services, helped children with disabilities to control aggressive behaviour in the classroom.</p> <p>There was an occupational therapist in my son's school that was loved by many children. I noticed that the occupational therapist understood him better and his behavior at school had improved. [Mother of a child with a disability]</p> <p>I feel lucky to have my son [with a disability] enrolled in this school because the school has made provision for physiotherapy, occupational therapy and speech and language therapy services for students with disabilities. It is a huge support for a family like me. We do not need to go to two different places for different services. The school he [child with a disability] was previously enrolled in did not have rehabilitation services. Anytime he had a therapy appointment, he used to miss his school. [Mother of a child with a disability]</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-14">Barriers to Education for Children with Disabilities</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0190413003-15">Stigma, Discrimination and Negative Attitudes</hd> <p>Stigma, discrimination and negative attitudes were prominent barriers for many children with disabilities in accessing education. Some participants reported that people in the community perceived that children with disabilities were a punishment for the parents, thus discouraging them from spending money on education for their child with a disability. Another issue raised by participants was discrimination against children with disabilities in mainstream schools. Discrimination was related to denial of admission on the grounds of disability, refusal to provide reasonable accommodations, exclusion from classroom discussions, and rejection from extracurricular activities. These discriminatory practices were particularly challenging for children who had severe disabilities, used mobility devices such as wheelchairs, and lacked verbal communication skills. A mother of a 7-year-old child who could not speak recounted:</p> <p>I wanted to get admission for my child in a primary school located in my village... but the headteacher told me that my child [with a disability] couldn't get admission because he can't speak. [Mother of a child with speech problem]</p> <p>Participants who were able to get admission for their children reported a tendency for class teachers to refuse to engage children with disabilities in classroom discussions. As such, children with disabilities remained isolated within the classroom. A mother, who was also a primary school teacher, mentioned:</p> <p>I am a teacher and my daughter [with a disability] gets admission in grade one in the same school I teach. I have noticed that my daughter's teacher doesn't pay attention to my daughter. She [teacher] never asked my daughter whether she [child with a disability] understood the lesson. In fact, the teacher hardly pays attention to my child ... it is frustrating and heartbreaking being a mother of a child with a disability. [Mother of a child with cerebral palsy]</p> <p>Some participants reported teachers' refusal to provide reasonable accommodations to children with disabilities which compelled some children with disabilities to drop out of school.</p> <p>There were many problems in my son's school. First, his class was on the second floor. Second, they had a ramp, but it was difficult to use because of how steep it was. Third, the washroom was inaccessible and also far from his classroom. When I requested the headteacher to provide support to my son with a disability-friendly washroom, the teacher replied that they can't provide such support. After attending a few classes, I stopped sending him to the school. How long can you stay in the school without using the washroom? [Mother of a boy with mobility impairment]</p> <p>In some schools where assistants were available to provide support to children with disabilities in using the washroom, children with disabilities encountered negative attitudes from these assistants when they needed such support more than once.</p> <p>Although in his [child with a disability] school, they have <emph>Ayas</emph> [female cleaner] who assist students with disabilities to use the washroom, they got annoyed when my son [with a disability] sought assistance more than once. When my son realized that the <emph>Ayas</emph> were upset because of his multiple requests to use the washroom, he feared them, cried and never wanted to go to his school .... [Mother of a child with a disability who is fully dependent on others for his activities of daily living]</p> <p>Additionally, some participants cited teachers' negative attitudes and the use of punishment to manage behavioural problems of children with disabilities.</p> <p>My son can't speak. If he is upset with anything, he just cries. One day his teacher put him [child with a disability] outside of his classroom ... because he was crying for some reason, and it was so loud that I was able to hear it from my home. I immediately went to his school and the teacher told me to keep him locked inside my home. When I discussed it with the headteacher, he replied that my son was violating the school's norms/rules. [Mother of a boy with behavioral problem associated with his disability]</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-16">Inaccessible Built Environments</hd> <p>A majority of participants, specifically those with children with mobility impairments, expressed that an inaccessible built environment was a major barrier for children with disabilities to access education. For example, many participants noted that the physical structure of school buildings, classroom arrangements and washrooms could not accommodate the needs of children with disabilities. A major environmental problem identified by many of the participants was the location of classrooms and the difficulty of physically getting into such spaces by children with disabilities.</p> <p>My son's [child with a disability] classroom is upstairs. The school does not have any ramp. So, I have to carry my son upstairs. I am experiencing pain in my shoulder and back from doing that activity on a regular basis. Although I want to take him to school every day, I can't because of my pain. [Mother of a boy with mobility impairment]</p> <p>Additionally, inaccessible washroom in mainstream public schools was another important barrier for children with disabilities in accessing education. This problem was particularly highlighted by participants with adolescent girls with disabilities as well as children using mobility devices. This inaccessibility in mainstream public schools sometimes compelled families to enrol their children with disabilities in private schools that had better washroom facilities.</p> <p>My daughter is a teenage girl [with a disability] and she sometimes needs assistance in using the washroom. I visited almost every public school when I was selecting schools for my daughter [with a disability]. Honestly, none of the public schools in my neighborhood had an accessible toilet. It is also hard to find a school that has a separate washroom for female students. I did not feel safe sending my daughter [with a disability] to those schools .... I have enrolled my daughter in a private school even though I am financially insolvent. They have <emph>Ayas</emph> who can help my daughter to go to the washroom. [Mother of an adolescent girl with a disability]</p> <p>My son can't go to school every day because he uses a wheelchair and there is no accessible toilet in his school. He studies at home most of the time because he can't stay at school for the whole day without using the washroom. He just participates in the exams that are often scheduled for 3 hours. [Father of a boy with spinal cord injury]</p> <p>Some participants expressed that the classroom setup was not appropriate to accommodate the needs of children with disabilities. Participants especially noted that schools administered the same rules in terms of classroom etiquette (i.e. all students must sit on chairs) for all children regardless of the need for accommodations for children with disabilities. Another concern expressed by most participants was the lack of accessible built environments that excluded children with disabilities from participating in extracurricular activities. Participants reported that their children with disabilities were given limited opportunities to participate in activities, such as sports, study tours, and picnic parties. Participants also reported that such limited opportunities for children with disabilities to participate in extracurricular activities not only isolated the students with disabilities, but it also affected their emotional wellbeing. A participant stated:</p> <p>I do not have any complaints against teachers at my son's school. They [teachers] are nice and helpful. Every year the teachers organize sports and picnic parties for students. But my son can't participate in any of these events. There is no event for students using wheelchairs. My son just stays home on those days. I know it hurts him [child with a disability], but he never expresses it. [Mother of an adolescent boy with a disability]</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-17">Limited Access to Information</hd> <p>Some participants discussed that they were not aware that a child with a disability could actually study in a mainstream school. Participants' limited knowledge deterred them from taking initiatives to access education for their children with disabilities.</p> <p>I didn't know that children with disabilities can study in a primary school [mainstream school]. I thought disabled children should go to special schools which are not available in our community. My child is more than ten years old now, and I do not know if teachers will enroll him [child with a disability] in school. [Mother of a child with a disability]</p> <p>I never tried to get admission to a school for my grandchild [with a disability] because I thought a disabled child couldn't study. My grandson is 12 years old. Can he get admission now? [A grandmother of a child with muscular dystrophy]</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-18">Discussion</hd> <p>This study aimed to explore barriers and facilitators in accessing education in mainstream schools for children with disabilities in Bangladesh. We found that children with disabilities experience barriers in accessing education in mainstream schools, including discrimination, negative attitudes and inaccessible built environments. Our study also revealed that the availability of various support systems was imperative in facilitating access to education for children with disabilities. Specifically, parents' motivation was crucial in gaining access to education for children with disabilities. We found that some parents of children with disabilities in our study invested significant effort to ensure quality education for their children with disabilities. For instance, some parents were motivated for their child's education and moved to the capital city to enable greater access. Parents' determination for their children's education with disabilities was driven by their desire to secure their child's future (i.e. employment) through education. These arguments are supported by Singal ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref38">40</reflink>]), who noted that parents' positive attitudes towards education are prioritised when they foresee the benefits of education, including access to education stipends and the value of education with future employment. As such, the government of Bangladesh needs to increase support for the education of children with disabilities. It is also essential to increase the visibility of disability in employment to encourage parents who are reluctant or do not understand the value of education.</p> <p>In contrast to previous studies where children with disabilities felt rejected by their typically developing peers (Siperstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref39">41</reflink>]), we found that peer support was instrumental for children with disabilities in participating in-class discussions. Specifically, peers helped navigate the inaccessible built environment. The finding is important given that people with disabilities generally experience negative attitudes in Bangladeshi society (Aldersey et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref40">3</reflink>]; Hasan et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref41">22</reflink>]). Future studies can explore the perception of typically developed students towards their peers with a disability to get an in-depth understanding of this topic. However, the finding indicates that peer acceptance is important for integrating children with disabilities in mainstream schools. Evidence suggests that peer support has a wide range of benefits, including promoting social inclusion of children with disabilities and improved access to general education for children with disabilities (Georgiadi et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref42">19</reflink>]; Kart & Kart, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref43">24</reflink>]). It also promotes meaningful peer interaction and increased academic engagement (Carter & Kennedy, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref44">9</reflink>]; Carter et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref45">10</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref46">8</reflink>]; Copeland et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref47">11</reflink>]). For instance, Copeland and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref48">11</reflink>]) clearly noted how a Peer Buddy Program that provided social and academic peer support and friendship to students with moderate or severe disabilities in a general high school enhanced participants' understanding of disability and developed positive attitudes towards students with disabilities. Participants of that study also reported that the Peer Buddy Program increased the functional academic skills of students with disabilities. Given this, the authors suggested considering the peer support strategy in designing inclusive environments (Copeland et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref49">11</reflink>]). Our findings support this recommendation as peer support contributes significantly to the implementation of inclusive education.</p> <p>We also found that integration of rehabilitation support in an education environment facilitated the inclusion of children with disabilities in mainstream schools. This finding indicates that interdisciplinary school-based services are essential to achieve the sustainable development goal of inclusive education in mainstream schools. Evidence from high-income countries, such as Canada, suggests that school-based rehabilitation services, occupational therapy, for example, can improve a child's written communication and motor skills (Bayona et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref50">5</reflink>]; Criss, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref51">12</reflink>]). As such, policymakers in Bangladesh may consider adopting this approach in mainstream schools. The linkage between education and rehabilitation services in mainstream schools could potentially contribute to motivating families to enrol their children with disabilities in mainstream schools. Evidence suggests that school-based healthcare services can reduce access disparities among vulnerable groups such as children with disabilities (Guo et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref52">21</reflink>]). It also saves families' time associated with travelling in accessing multiple services for their children with disabilities in different places. This, in turn, enables families to retain employment and contribute to the economy (Guo et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref53">21</reflink>]). Therefore, our analysis highlights the need for school-based rehabilitation services for children with disabilities in Bangladesh and similar contexts.</p> <p>We found that family members with girls with disabilities experienced unique challenges when they tried to enrol their daughters with a disability in a mainstream school. This finding is remarkably similar to researchers emphasising the need to consider gender issues in the school environment (Dreibelbis et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref54">17</reflink>]). Family members specifically highlighted separate washrooms for male and female students with disabilities within the school premises are critical for privacy and safety. The absence of such facilities in mainstream public schools compelled some family members to choose private schools for their adolescent girl with a disability. Lack of access to an accessible and secured washroom in many low and middle-income countries often deter children with disabilities, particularly adolescent girls, from attending school (Erhard et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref55">18</reflink>]; Groce et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref56">20</reflink>]). As such, policymakers in Bangladesh should endeavour to consider gender mainstreaming in the provision of sanitation facilities (i.e. construction of accessible and separate washrooms for girls with disabilities to increase their enrolment in public schools).</p> <p>Although teachers are the key stakeholders in implementing inclusive education in mainstream schools (De Boer et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref57">13</reflink>]; Ross‐Hill, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref58">36</reflink>]), participants in the current study reported teachers held negative attitudes towards disability. Evidence suggests that teachers' training can potentially influence their ability to promote positive attitudes towards inclusion (Avramidis & Kalyva, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref59">4</reflink>]). Therefore, the implication for policymakers is to support the training of teachers by allocating resources in mainstream schools. Further, regular in-service training and workshops are essential for teachers to enhance their knowledge and skills in teaching students with disabilities in mainstream schools (Okyere, Aldersey, Lysaght, & Sulaiman, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref60">32</reflink>]. There is also a need to test whether in-service training or workshops are actually helping teachers to develop a positive mindset towards children with disabilities. Such evaluation study is important to develop effective teacher training programmes. Future studies in Bangladesh should explore teachers' perspectives towards the inclusion of children with disabilities in mainstream schools. Teachers' perspective is particularly critical, as their beliefs underlying the philosophy of inclusion are important to achieve the goal of inclusive education (Parasuram, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref61">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>Finally, it is worth noting that parents should advocate for the inclusion of children with disabilities in mainstream schools. This is particularly important because advocacy by family members appeared to be an effective method to improve services and secure resources for children with disabilities (Ryan & Quinlan, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref62">39</reflink>]). It can also promote legislative changes, improve public awareness, and increase funding flow to disability services (Black & Baker, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref63">6</reflink>]; Wright & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref64">52</reflink>]). Thus, parental advocacy is likely to facilitate the growth and development of children with disabilities as well as their inclusion in mainstream society (McCabe, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref65">27</reflink>]). However, parents may need informational support to educate themselves about the child's condition and rights for services to make a persistent effort to advocate for children with disabilities (Rafferty & Sullivan, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref66">35</reflink>]). The practitioners and educational service providers can support parents with knowledge and skills to become effective advocates for their children with disabilities. Therefore, collaboration among various stakeholders is essential to facilitate the education of children with disabilities in Bangladesh and other similar contexts.</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-19">Limitations</hd> <p>This paper has several limitations that need to be acknowledged in the context of this work. Firstly, our participants were selected from a rehabilitation centre – CRP. As such, the findings' transferability may be limited to those who did not have access to services in this service centre. Secondly, we captured the voices of families of children with certain types of disabilities, mostly cerebral palsy. Family members of children with other forms of disability, such as deafblindness, might have different experiences that are not captured here. Such information is needed to increase our understanding of how to provide support to children with disabilities who are out of school. Furthermore, most of our study participants were female, thus undermining the voice of male family members that could have broadened our understanding of this topic. Finally, first-person perspectives on improving access to education for children with disabilities in Bangladesh are essential. Therefore, the next step of this study is to interview children with disability about their educational needs and experiences to broaden our understanding of this phenomenon.</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-20">Implications of Study Findings</hd> <p>Despite the government's effort towards inclusive education, several family members reported discrimination in accessing education for their children with disabilities. The discriminatory attitudes towards disability came not only from the community members but also from schoolteachers. This finding is troubling given that teachers, in particular, headteachers from every primary school, received training on disability and inclusive education under the Primary Education Development Program (Directorate of Primary Education, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref67">15</reflink>]; UNICEF, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref68">46</reflink>]). This finding clearly indicates that there is much to be done to address teachers' negative attitudes towards including children with disabilities in mainstream schools. As indicated earlier, more training for teachers and strong monitoring systems are crucial to combat discrimination against disability. There is also a need to evaluate existing teacher training programmes and ensure that the content itself is not discriminatory. Additionally, disability awareness programmes for the local community and school authorities are extremely important to develop a positive mindset towards disability and thus build an inclusive society.</p> <p>Our study findings also revealed that family members prefer schools that offer other services for children with disabilities (e.g. physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and speech pathology). As such, Bangladeshi policymakers must consider the multiple service needs of children with disabilities and their families when planning for inclusive education for these individuals. This study also revealed that natural (e.g. family and friends) and formal support are equally important in facilitating education for children with disabilities. The government and Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) Programs need to think critically about leveraging these supports for learners with disabilities.</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-21">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study explored the barriers and facilitators in accessing education for children with disabilities in Bangladesh. Despite numerous access to education barriers (e.g. discrimination, inaccessible built environment, and negative attitudes), we found that parents' positive attitudes towards education and support from peers were instrumental in facilitating access to education for children with disabilities in mainstream school. However, to achieve the goal of inclusive education, government investment is needed to address barriers. Specifically, resource flow should increase in building disability-friendly environments in school premises and providing teachers' training on how to provide education to students with disabilities alongside their peers without a disability. These are important because inclusive education is not only limited to the enrolment of children with disabilities in mainstream schools but also creates an environment that allows children with disabilities to participate in all aspects of their education in a meaningful way.</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-22">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>The authors are grateful to study participants who generously shared their experiences about access to education for children with disabilities.</p> <hd id="AN0190413003-23">Disclosure Statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0190413003-24"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref17" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Adugna, M., Ghahari, S., Merkley, S., & Rentz, K. (2022). Children with disabilities in Eastern Africa face significant barriers to access education: A scoping review. 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  Data: Barriers and Facilitators in Accessing Education in Mainstream Schools for Children with Disabilities in Bangladesh: A Qualitative Secondary Data Analysis
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  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Reshma+Parvin+Nuri%22">Reshma Parvin Nuri</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9078-5088">0000-0002-9078-5088</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Heather+Michelle+Aldersey%22">Heather Michelle Aldersey</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7763-5934">0000-0001-7763-5934</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Setareh+Ghahari%22">Setareh Ghahari</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5519-2896">0000-0001-5519-2896</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ebenezer+Dassah%22">Ebenezer Dassah</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22International+Journal+of+Disability%2C+Development+and+Education%22"><i>International Journal of Disability, Development and Education</i></searchLink>. 2026 73(1):1-18.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 18
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  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
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  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Barriers%22">Barriers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Affordances%22">Affordances</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Access+to+Education%22">Access to Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mainstreaming%22">Mainstreaming</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inclusion%22">Inclusion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Special+Schools%22">Special Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Resources%22">Resources</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Bias%22">Social Bias</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attitudes+toward+Disabilities%22">Attitudes toward Disabilities</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Bangladesh%22">Bangladesh</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/1034912X.2024.2417287
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1034-912X<br />1465-346X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Promoting access to mainstream schools for children with disabilities has been highlighted in national and international legislative and policy initiatives. However, children with disabilities' access to mainstream school remains an important challenge, particularly in low and middle-income countries, such as Bangladesh. We explored barriers and facilitators in accessing education for children with disabilities through a secondary analysis of qualitative data. Results indicate that children with disabilities experience challenges in their endeavour to access education, including stigma, discrimination, inaccessible built environment, and teachers' negative attitudes towards children with disabilities. However, support from different sources, specifically parents' strong motivation towards their child's education and peer support, are great facilitators for children with disabilities in accessing education. We conclude with recommendations for support for parents to advocate for the rights of their children with disabilities in mainstream schools. We also recommend that government should invest resources to make mainstream schools disability friendly. In particular, accessible classrooms and washrooms are essential to enable in-class participation of children with disabilities. Further, investment is needed for teachers' training on teaching disabled children in mainstream schools. A collaborative approach between policymakers, teachers, professionals, and parents is imperative to achieve inclusive education.
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  Data: 2026
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1504284
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  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/1034912X.2024.2417287
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 18
        StartPage: 1
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Barriers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Affordances
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Access to Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mainstreaming
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Inclusion
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Special Schools
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      – SubjectFull: Resources
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      – SubjectFull: Social Bias
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      – SubjectFull: Attitudes toward Disabilities
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      – SubjectFull: Bangladesh
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Barriers and Facilitators in Accessing Education in Mainstream Schools for Children with Disabilities in Bangladesh: A Qualitative Secondary Data Analysis
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            NameFull: Heather Michelle Aldersey
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            NameFull: Setareh Ghahari
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