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Peer Relationships and Sense of Belonging in the Transition to College

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Title: Peer Relationships and Sense of Belonging in the Transition to College
Language: English
Authors: Blake Glatley, J. Ashwin Rambaran, Kaelyn Sabree, Allison Ryan, Kyle Walton, Christine Modey
Source: Merrill-Palmer Quarterly: A Peer Relations Journal. 2025 71(1):34-62.
Availability: Wayne State University Press. The Leonard N. Simons Building, 4809 Woodward Avenue, Detroit, MI 48201-1309. Tel: 800-978-7323; Fax: 313-577-6131; Web site: https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/mpq/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 29
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: School Transition, Student Adjustment, Sense of Belonging, Social Networks, College Freshmen, Peer Relationship, Racial Identification, Predominantly White Institutions, Residential Programs, Classroom Environment
ISSN: 0272-930X
1535-0266
Abstract: The transition to college presents challenges for students as they form new peer relationships while experiencing varying degrees of belonging within the college community. This study investigated with cross-sectional social network analysis how self-reports of residential program and classroom belonging associated with social and academic networks among a sample of first-year college students (N = 1,125) participating in residential college programs. Analyses revealed that, controlling for each other, residential program belonging but not classroom belonging was significantly associated with students' social and academic networks. Additionally, after accounting for other factors, underrepresented minority students, particularly Black and multiracial students with low residential program belonging, were more likely than White students to hang out with peers across the broader residential college community. Findings highlight the importance of students' sense of belonging for relationships with peers in the transition to college.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Access URL: https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/mpq/vol71/iss1/2
Accession Number: EJ1507870
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0191348242;mpq01jan.25;2026Apr03.07:43;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0191348242-1">Peer Relationships and Sense of Belonging in the Transition to College </title> <p>Keywords: belonging; college transition; social network analysis; peer relationships</p> <p>People are fundamentally social; feeling a sense of belonging to social groups and the social spaces we occupy is essential to our well-being and social identity ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref1">3</reflink>]). Yet, throughout the lifespan, feelings of belonging can be uncertain or challenged, particularly during major transitional periods ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref2">20</reflink>]). For many young adults during the transition to college, their feelings of belonging are challenged as they navigate a new social environment. While first-year college students vary in their feelings of belonging ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref3">21</reflink>]), it is largely unknown how these differences in belonging come about and how belonging is associated with peer relationships in social and academic contexts. Furthermore, different racial and ethnic groups experience belonging differently in their college social environment ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref4">42</reflink>]). This is partly due to a heightened salience of ethnic and racial identities as students navigate racialized structures and interactions within higher education institutions ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref5">29</reflink>]). The current study examined how college students' sense of belonging and their racial/ethnic identities are associated with their peer relationships during the transition to college.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-2">Transition to College</hd> <p>Late adolescence and young adulthood are complex developmental periods marked by significant changes in students' lives. During this period, individuals navigate newfound autonomy from their parents and caregivers, placing increased importance and dependence on close peer relationships ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref6">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref7">8</reflink>]). For the roughly 60% of American youth who attend college immediately after high school ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref8">32</reflink>]), these developmental challenges are compounded by the social transition to college. Nearly one-quarter of these young adults drop out, while an additional one-third fail to complete their degree ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref9">19</reflink>]). Many institutions have turned their attention to providing support to students during this transitional phase ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref10">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref11">38</reflink>] Model of Student Departure suggests that students' persistence in college is influenced by their ability to establish meaningful social connections, including relationships with peers and faculty. Successful social integration involves navigating three sequential stages: separating from prior communities, transitioning into the college environment, and finally, achieving full integration within the college community ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref12">38</reflink>]). Extensive research supports this model, showing that students who persist in college gradually distance themselves from earlier support networks while building new support systems ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref13">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref14">7</reflink>]), suggesting that first-year students' sense of belonging relates to forming new social connections within the college community ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref15">25</reflink>]). No studies have explored the associations between first-year students' social connections and their feelings of belonging. Therefore, we used Tinto's model to guide our expectations.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-3">Sense of Belonging</hd> <p>Belonging refers to the personal fit that an individual feels between themselves and the social or physical space they are occupying (here: the college social and academic environments; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref16">42</reflink>]). Students can maintain distinct feelings of belonging in different spaces, such as social or academic environments, as they form domain-specific relationships in these contexts ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref17">27</reflink>]). The transition to college typically involves significant social changes that reshape existing relationships ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref18">4</reflink>]) and can influence individuals' social ties. These uncertainties can prompt individuals to ask themselves questions such as "Do I belong here?" and "Do I fit in?" Students become increasingly attuned to instances that affirm or deny their sense of belonging ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref19">42</reflink>]). For example, a warm welcome from a professor or an invitation to a student group can reinforce feelings of belonging, whereas exclusion from a dormitory social event could serve to undermine it. Accordingly, as students start to navigate the college social environment, they vary in their feelings of belonging ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref20">21</reflink>]), which can impact their subsequent social and academic success ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref21">27</reflink>]). For instance, first-year college students who have a greater sense of belonging are more likely to persist in their degree program, are more engaged in their college classes and with their campus community, and report greater mental health outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref22">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref23">43</reflink>]). As such, first-year students with a greater sense of belonging are likely better equipped to transition to college successfully.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-4">Peer Relationships</hd> <p>The transition to college requires students to enter a completely new social environment, often without the supportive peer relationships they had in high school. Hence, seeking company and peer support becomes a priority ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref24">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref25">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref26">37</reflink>]). Indeed, relationships in the first year of college provide students with social, emotional, and academic support during the college transition ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref27">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref28">37</reflink>]). Yet first-year students vary in the number of social connections they maintain with college peers ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref29">11</reflink>]), with underrepresented minority (URM) students generally reporting smaller social networks during their first year of college compared with their White counterparts ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref30">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref31">26</reflink>]). We argue that this may be associated with differences in students' sense of belonging to the college environment. If a sense of belonging reflects one's perceived "fit" within a social environment, then the number of relationships a person maintains in that context may serve as a meaningful indicator of that perceived fit. Research suggests that peer relationships can support belonging. For example, Latinx high schoolers with more peer nominations report stronger school belonging ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref32">13</reflink>]). In college, the relationship may be more nuanced: Students who feel a stronger sense of belonging may build larger peer networks, while those with weaker belonging may maintain relationships outside the college community instead, resulting in smaller on-campus peer networks ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref33">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref34">38</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-5">Racial/Ethnic Identities and Sense of Belonging</hd> <p>In recent reviews of belonging, students' racial/ethnic identities have been identified as playing an important role ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref35">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref36">29</reflink>]), particularly in environments where they are in the minority, such as predominantly White institutions. This is especially relevant in higher education, which comprises racialized institutions that have historically excluded students based on race, ethnicity, and social class ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref37">9</reflink>]). Historic and contemporary inequities shape how students from different racial and ethnic backgrounds experience campus life, including how they develop a sense of belonging ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref38">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref39">25</reflink>]). However, previous research has repeatedly demonstrated that URM students report lower overall feelings of university belonging compared with White students ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref40">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref41">36</reflink>]). Therefore, we utilize these racial/ethnic categories (URM vs. White) to explore differences in feelings of belonging to students' residential programs.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-6">Current Study</hd> <p>We examined the association between the number of peer relationships and sense of belonging in a sample of first-year college students at a large, predominantly White, public U.S. university, where approximately 55% of the student population identified as White. We examined how students' feelings of belonging in their residential programs and classrooms related to the number of their peer relationships within each of these respective contexts—an area rarely distinguished in prior college student research ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref42">27</reflink>])—and examined how students' feelings of belonging varied between URM and White students. Given prior evidence of differences in belonging between URM and White students ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref43">25</reflink>]), we generally expected: URM students will report lower average levels of belonging than White students (H1). Next, we examined how students' sense of belonging associated with their peer social and academic networks. Based on previous research that identifies the underlying importance of belonging for peer relationships ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref44">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref45">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref46">42</reflink>]), we expected the following: Students with a greater sense of belonging will have larger social and academic peer networks (H2). Next, we explored potential differences in the size of students' social networks by race/ethnicity, as some research suggests that URM students, on average, have smaller peer social networks than White students ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref47">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref48">26</reflink>]). Therefore, we expected: URM students, as compared with White students, will have smaller social and academic peer networks (H3). Finally, as an exploratory analysis, we examined how students' sense of belonging and their racial/ethnic identity interacted to determine the number of peer relationships.</p> <p>We examined our hypotheses using cross-sectional social network analysis using exponential random graph models (or ERGMs) in R ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref49">23</reflink>]). ERGMs estimate the likelihood of a social tie between two individuals (e.g. peer nominations) based on belonging while accounting for relational dependencies, making them the preferred method for analyzing social network data ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref50">34</reflink>]). Most research on peer relationships and belonging uses individual-level methods (e.g. ordinary least squares regression) that treat each student's number of peer ties as independent, ignoring network dependencies ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref51">34</reflink>]). This approach assumes independence across observations, despite evidence that social ties are interdependent ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref52">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref53">13</reflink>]). ERGMs control for alternative tie-generating mechanisms, such as preferential attachment, where students connect based on similar attributes ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref54">41</reflink>]). They also account for endogenous network processes such as reciprocity and closure, which avoids overestimating the link between belonging and peer relationships.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-7">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191348242-8">Sample</hd> <p>Data came from a larger project on first-year students' academic and social experiences in residential programs at a large Midwestern U.S. public university. These programs connect mostly first-year students around academic themes (e.g. health sciences, foreign languages; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref55">24</reflink>]). The study spanned two consecutive academic years (2022–2023 and 2023–2024), each with a different cohort of students from 10 different programs in the first year and 11 in the second year. To obtain a valid assessment of a peer network and satisfy assumptions of cross-sectional social network analysis ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref56">28</reflink>]), high response rates (~75%) from potential participants are required to minimize missing data effects ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref57">18</reflink>]). Our study included residential programs meeting this threshold, resulting in seven eligible programs. The final sample does not include 15 respondents who had missing race data (see Table 1).</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-9">Procedure</hd> <p>About 2 months into the academic year (around October), first-year students in participating residential programs were informed about the voluntary survey via program directors. Students gave active consent through the Web survey and were informed that they could opt out at any time, without consequences. Only students with active consent were included in the study. Program liaisons shared a Qualtrics link during community meetings and by email, followed by repeated reminders encouraging survey completion. The survey remained open for one month, and participants could enter a lottery for one of 100 $40 prizes. The study was approved by the University of Michigan Institutional Review Board (HUM00222565).</p> <p>Graph: Table 1. Overview of gender and race/ethnicity by study cohort</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-10">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191348242-11">Peer Relationships</hd> <p>Students reported peer relationships by nominating up to 10 peers they "co-studied" or "hung out" with in their residential program. Although fixed limits can underestimate ties ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref58">14</reflink>]), few students reached the maximum (1.1% for hang out, 0.7% for co-study). Directed networks were constructed from nominations (1 = nominated, 0 = not) for each type of peer relationship (i.e. co-study network and hang out network). Students who skipped nomination questions (3.2%) were coded as missing (NA) but could still be nominated by others and remained in the networks. These students did not nominate anyone in their residential program but could be nominated by their peers in their residential program and were, therefore, part of the networks.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-12">Sense of Belonging</hd> <p>Students were asked to report about the extent to which they felt they belonged, both in their residential program and in the classroom ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref59">30</reflink>]), in the past 2 months ("since the start of college this year"). Residential program belonging was measured with 5 items, such as "I am happy in my residential program" and "I feel like I am part of my residential program" (α =.87). Classroom belonging was measured with 3 items, such as "I get along with others in my classes" and "I feel like I belong when I am in my classes" (α =.81). Answers for both classroom and residential program belonging were reported on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). Scores were averaged for each student, with higher values indicating greater classroom or residential program belonging.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-13">Demographics and Control Variables</hd> <p>Ethnic-racial identity group was coded 0 = White, 1 = underrepresented minority (URM) (consisting of Asian, Black or African American, Latinx, multiracial, and other URM, including Hawaiian, Middle Eastern or North African, American Indian/Native American). Sex was included as a control (1 = male, 0 = female).</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-14">Analytical Strategy</hd> <p>We tested our hypotheses surrounding students' sense of (residential program and classroom) belonging and their peer relationships ("hang out with" and "co-study with") with two sets of analyses. We tested our first hypothesis, that URM students would have lower average feelings of belonging compared with White students (H1), using independent samples t-tests. The other two hypotheses (H2, H3), aimed at predicting students' peer relationships, as well as the exploratory analysis concerning the interaction between race/ethnicity and belonging, were assessed with the cross-sectional social network analysis (with the ergm package in R; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref60">23</reflink>]). The ergm package does not handle missing data on nodal attributes (e.g. belonging), and the simplest solution to such issues is to impute missing attribute data prior to model estimation. Considering missingness for belonging was low (2.4% for residential program belonging, 2.3% for classroom belonging), we opted for mean substitution to minimize the influence of missing data. To maximize statistical power, we pooled the information from all 14 networks (across both cohorts) while recognizing that edges (i.e. peer nominations) between the different networks were not permitted (using the "block-diagonal structure constraint" specification). In all models, we controlled for the general occurrence of ties (with the edges parameter), which is comparable to the intercept or grand mean in (generalized) linear models. In all models, we also controlled for differences in nominations sent and received between the two cohorts (Year 1 as reference) and network size. Appendix A provides goodness-of-fit statistics, of which degree distribution is most relevant for us to consider. Fit was generally good for nominations received (indegree) but less optimal for nominations sent (outdegree), in particular for isolates, though we did account for this.</p> <p>Our first question explored differences between URM and White students' feelings of belonging and were addressed with independent samples t-tests (H1). Our second question examined whether students' sense of belonging related to their peer relationships (H2). To test this hypothesis, we included the nodecov (ergm shortname) parameter. This effect counts the number of edges based on a given attribute. Hence, a positive parameter estimate would indicate that students with a higher sense of belonging also had more connections (i.e. more nominations sent plus received). Our third question examined whether students' racial/ethnic identity group was related to their peer relationships (H3). The included nodecov parameter, if negative, would be indicative of URM students having fewer connections as compared with White students. Finally, our exploratory question concerned whether URM students differed in their number of connections based on their feelings of belonging, which we tested with an interaction between the two nodecov parameters for belonging and race/ethnicity (White as reference). We report interactions comparing URM and White students, whereas interaction effects by specific URM groups are presented as ancillary analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-15">Results</hd> <p>Contrary to our expectation (H1), White students, as compared with URM students, did not report significantly greater feelings of residential program (t[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref61">1</reflink>,096] = −0.40, p =.69) or classroom belonging (t[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref62">1</reflink>,097] = 1.49, p =.14), as shown by independent samples t-tests. This means both groups displayed similar average levels of residential program and classroom belonging: Across both cohorts (years), the mean residential program belonging scores of White and URM students were, respectively, 4.09 and 4.10; for classroom belonging, the mean scores of White and URM students were, respectively, 4.12 and 4.06 (differences between the two cohorts were minimal; see Table 2). Network nominations differed by type</p> <p>Graph: Table 2. Description of variables by network type and study cohort</p> <p>(Table 2): Hang out nominations averaged about 5 (sent and received), and co-study, about 4. White and URM students showed similar patterns, though differences appeared between cohorts.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-16">ERGM Findings</hd> <p>Tables 3 and 4 present the results of the ERGMs. We ran analyses on all possible combinations of network type and type of belonging.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-17">Belonging Effects</hd> <p>The negative edges parameter estimates indicate an overall low occurrence of hanging out and co-studying relationships in the networks. Controlling for this, as well as any instance that students with similar (or different) levels of belonging connected with each other (as reflected in the Absolute Difference parameters), the positive and significant Belonging Sender + Receiver parameters show that only students' sense of residential program belonging was related to their number of social (Est. = 0.261, p <.001) and academic connections (Est. = 0.227, p <.001), as the effect of classroom belonging was no longer positive in the model that included residential program belonging (compare Model 3 with Model 2). This indicates that, net of other effects, residential program rather than classroom belonging was predictive of peer relations, which lends support to Hypothesis 2 for residential program belonging.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-18">Race Effects</hd> <p>Controlling for everything else, including the positive and significant Race Match parameters, which indicates a tendency for White students and URM students to hang out or co-study with peers who belonged to the same racial/ethnic identity group as them (reflecting racial/ethnic homophily), the Race Sender + Receiver parameters were nonsignificant in both networks. This indicates that, net of other effects, White students and students from URM backgrounds were approximately equally likely to hang out with and study with other peers in their networks, which does not support Hypothesis 3.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-19">Belonging × Race Interaction</hd> <p>To explore whether URM and White students differed in number of connections based on their level of belonging, we included an interaction term between belonging and race (Belonging × Race Sender + Receiver parameter). Controlling for everything else, only the interaction term between residential program belonging and race in the hang out networks was significant (Model 3 in Table 3). In view of this negative interaction term, compared with White students, URM students with high levels of residential program belonging were less likely to hang out with other peers in their networks, whereas URM students with low levels of residential program belonging were more likely to hang out with other peers in their networks, though this effect was rather small (see Appendix C).</p> <p>Graph: Table 3. Exponential random graph model results for hang out networks and belonging</p> <p>Graph: Table 4. Exponential random graph model results for co-study networks and belonging</p> <p>As ancillary analyses, we assessed whether this effect varied by URM group. The results are presented in Appendix B (Model 1). Only the interaction terms for Black students and multiracial students are significant, indicating that, net of everything else, for these two groups high levels of residential program belonging reduced the likelihood to hang out with peers in networks.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-20">Control Effects: Network Endogenous and Sex Effects</hd> <p>The control effects were comparable across the models in Tables 3 and 4. Hence, we describe them generally. Reciprocity indicates the general occurrence of reciprocation of ties. The positive reciprocity parameters estimate reveals that students tended to hang out or co-study with the peers who hung out or co-studied with them as well. The positive isolates parameter indicates that some students were uninvolved in hang out and co-study relationships: They neither nominated others nor were nominated by others. The negative two paths parameter in combination with the positive gwesp parameter indicates that a student was unlikely to be indirectly connected to someone else but, rather, to close this "open path" such that groups were formed that hung out or co-studied together (triadic closure).</p> <p>Taking into account all other effects, the ERGMs show sex patterns that were comparable across the hang out and co-study networks (Model 3 in Tables 3 and 4). Compared with females, males were more likely to hang out or co-study with other peers in their networks (positive Sex Sender + Receiver parameter). Additionally, both males and females were more likely to hang out and co-study with other peers of the same sex than different sex (positive Sex Match parameters). Overall, the results suggest that hanging out and co-studying occurred mostly among the same sex, an indication of sex segregation within students' social networks.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-21">Discussion</hd> <p>For many students, the transition to college marks a period of significant challenges to their peer relations and sense of belonging. We aimed to better understand how these two aspects interact during the college transition. Higher education institutions have historically been exclusive spaces, often limiting access to marginalized people ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref63">9</reflink>]). Given that colleges and universities amplify the salience of racial and ethnic identities through racialized structures and interactions, we explored how peer relations, sense of belonging, and their intersection differed between White and URM students. The findings supported the hypothesis, that students' feelings of residential program belonging were significantly associated with their social and academic ties to their peers, net of other effects. We also found that, compared with White students, students from URM backgrounds with fewer feelings of residential program belonging were more likely to connect with other students, whereas URM students with higher feelings of residential program belonging were less likely to connect with other students, net of everything else.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-22">Belonging During the Transition to College</hd> <p>We broadly expected URM students to report lower levels of residential program and classroom belonging than White students, consistent with previous research ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref64">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref65">36</reflink>]). Research has identified URM students as experiencing belonging differently than White students ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref66">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref67">33</reflink>]), in part due to racial barriers of higher education, racially charged interactions with community members, and lack of representation in courses ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref68">29</reflink>]). However, we found no differences in belonging between White and URM students. We suspect that our sample's involvement in residential programs may explain this. For instance, other research found that White students reported greater campus belonging than URM students, yet no significant differences were found when asked about belonging to their residential program ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref69">36</reflink>]). Together, these findings suggest that participation in a residential program, especially early on, may be particularly advantageous for URM students' sense of belonging, as it fosters a sense of community that might otherwise be lacking at the campus level.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-23">Belonging and Peer Relationships</hd> <p>Consistent with prior work ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref70">13</reflink>]), we found that students with greater feelings of belonging also reported more peer relationships. Specifically, when both types of belonging were modeled simultaneously, only residential program belonging remained a significant positive predictor of both hang out and co-study peer connections. Classroom belonging no longer showed a positive effect, suggesting that residential program belonging may play a more central role in shaping students' peer networks in the transition to college. These findings support [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref71">38</reflink>] Model of Student Departure, suggesting that students who feel more connected to their college community are more likely to form peer relationships, signaling stronger college adjustment.</p> <p>We also found that White and URM students were similarly likely to hang out and study with peers in their networks, contrary to Hypothesis 3 and prior research showing racial differences in network size ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref72">26</reflink>]). Notably, we did not observe racial/ethnic differences in students' academic connections, suggesting that URM students were similarly embedded in academically focused peer networks as their White peers. This may reflect the structure of residential programs, which are often more diverse and academically oriented. Given the importance of academic networks for student success ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref73">31</reflink>]), this is an encouraging finding. Still, more research is needed to understand how belonging and peer relationships evolve and impact long-term academic outcomes. This study adds to existing research by shifting the direction of analysis. Prior studies have typically positioned peer networks as predictors of belonging (e.g. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref74">13</reflink>]). In contrast, we examined peer relationships as outcomes of belonging, using a more rigorous methodological approach (ERGMs).</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-24">Belonging and Peer Relationships for URM and White Students</hd> <p>We discovered that URM students with higher levels of residential program belonging were less likely to socialize with other peers in their hang out network compared with their White counterparts. The reverse was also true: URM students with lower levels of belonging were more likely to socialize with other peers compared with their White counterparts. Although one might expect URM students with higher levels of belonging to socialize more within their hang out networks, these findings are relative to White students, who were anticipated to be more integrated into peer networks. Those with high belonging may have limited need for many connections, whereas those with low belonging may compensate by having additional connections. Alternatively, URM students may engage with other communities, such as affinity/cultural groups, that provide spaces to develop connections outside of their residential community. When URM students feel pressured to assimilate into the broader institutional culture, they may be more inclined to seek out spaces with similar peers where they can express their authentic selves ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref75">17</reflink>]). URM students with weaker belonging may feel more comfortable exploring social connections within their community, whereas those with a stronger sense of belonging may seek connections beyond that setting to engage more authentically with peers. However, we cannot answer these questions with our data as peer nominations were restricted to the residential program.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-25">Strengths, Limitations, Future Directions, and Implications</hd> <p>Our study has several strengths. First, previous social network research has focused on K–12 settings ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref76">40</reflink>]); we extended this to higher education (see, for other recent examples, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref77">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref78">44</reflink>]). Second, unlike studies of classroom-based peer networks, higher education lacks clear boundaries, which complicates network definition. Utilizing data from first-year students in residential programs allowed for more clearly bounded network analysis, though limited to within-program ties. Third, we leveraged data from multiple residential programs at a single university, capturing these associations across varied settings. Fourth, we recognized that students have distinct types of peer networks and belonging ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref79">27</reflink>]) and encourage future research to examine how students' varied networks shape belonging across identities. Finally, we measured peer relations at the dyadic level (e.g. "Who do you hang out with?"), enabling more detailed analysis ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref80">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>Still limitations remain. First, we examined these associations cross-sectionally, during a period of rapid social change. Longitudinal research is needed to understand how belonging and peer relationships develop over time in college, especially given prior research focus on adolescence ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref81">35</reflink>]). Future work should also explore other network metrics, such as betweenness or eigenvector centrality. Second, our measures were focused on experiences in residential programs. We were unable to capture students' preexisting peer relations and belonging levels before they transitioned to college. Thus, findings provide a partial view of the association between students' sense of belonging and peer relations. This is common for social network studies relying on convenience samples. Future work should consider other contexts and contextual factors that may shape belonging, such as involvement in student organizations.</p> <p>Belonging research has prompted institutional reform efforts ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref82">1</reflink>]). Empirical work recognizes racialized barriers URM students face, potentially lowering belonging and widening disparities ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref83">25</reflink>]). Recent reviews highlight differing roles for students, faculty, and institutions in closing belonging gaps ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref84">29</reflink>]). Yet most interventions place the responsibility to develop feelings of belonging on URM students ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref85">29</reflink>]). Interventions should instead target institutional structures to promote equity. Residential programs may be one such intervention that can foster early belonging via social and academic integration. Examples could include peer group mixers or facilitated co-study sessions to help strengthen students' network connections. These programs can also support URM students by adopting culturally responsive initiatives such as student and faculty affinity groups ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref86">6</reflink>]) or inclusive facilitation training ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref87">10</reflink>]). Contrary to prior research showing university-level belonging differences ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref88">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref89">36</reflink>]), we found no mean-level differences between URM and White students, highlighting the promise of residential programs.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-26">Conclusion</hd> <p>The transition to college involves shifts in students' sense of belonging and peer relationships, but how these changes interact, and whether minoritized students experience belonging differently than White students, remains unclear. This study examined these associations in students newly transitioned to college, highlighting how belonging relates to peer network involvement among a diverse sample of college students.</p> <p>Blake Glatley</p> <p>Blake Glatley, Combined Program in Education and Psychology</p> <p>J. Ashwin Rambaran</p> <p>J. Ashwin Rambaran, Department of Sociology</p> <p>Kaelyn Sabree</p> <p>Kaelyn Sabree, Department of Psychology</p> <p>Allison Ryan</p> <p>Allison Ryan, Combined Program in Education and Psychology</p> <p>Kyle Walton</p> <p>Kyle Walton, School of Literature, Science & the Arts.</p> <p>Christine Modey</p> <p>Christine Modey, School of Literature, Science & the Arts.</p> <p>Address correspondence to Blake Glatley, 610 E. University Ave. Office 1600D, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. E-mail: glatley@umich.edu.</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-27">Appendix A</hd> <p>Graph: Table A1. Goodness of fit for Model 3 in Table 3</p> <p>Graph: Table A2. Goodness of fit for Model 3 in Table 4</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-28">Appendix B</hd> <p>Graph: Table B1. Exponential random graph model results for hang out and co-study networks and belonging</p> <hd id="AN0191348242-29">Appendix C. Calculations of Conditional Log Odds</hd> <p>To illustrate the significant negative interaction effect between residential program belonging and race shown in Model 3 in Table 3, we calculated conditional log odds and transformed them to conditional probabilities using the plogis function in R. We considered four terms: the <emph>nodecov</emph> effect of belonging, the <emph>nodecov</emph> effect of race, their <emph>interaction</emph>, and the <emph>edges</emph> term. These conditional probabilities are net of all other effects included in the models. The results are presented in three separate tables, one for each race combination in the dyad (i.e. both White as reference, both underrepresented minority [URM], and White-URM). Each table contains the sender and receiver combinations for residential program belonging, ranging from 1 to 5. In these calculations, the directionality is disregarded, that is, it does not matter who in the dyad had a lower or higher belonging score. Hence, the probabilities above and below the diagonal are the same.</p> <p>As can be seen in Tables C1, C2, and C3, the probability to form a tie in the hang out networks increased as belonging increased, with a minimum probability of.02, or 2% [cell 1,1], and a maximum probability that varies between.15 and.17 [cell 5,5]. The difference between White and URM students is, at most, about.01 to.02, or 1% to 2%, a rather small effect only noticeable in the higher regions of the belonging scale. Thus, belonging in itself had a much larger effect on relationships, with a small additional effect of race (i.e. URM students only slightly lower than White students).</p> <p>Graph: Table C1. Conditional probabilities for each combination of belonging, when both students in a dyad were White as Reference</p> <p>Graph: Table C2. Conditional probabilities for each combination of belonging, when both students in a dyad were underrepresented minorities</p> <p>Graph: Table C3. Conditional probabilities for each combination of belonging, when one student in a dyad was White and the other one was an underrepresented minority</p> <p>Copyright © 2025 Wayne State University Press</p> <ref id="AN0191348242-30"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref61" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Part of this work was funded by the Horizon 2020 Marie-Curie Fellowship (H2020-MSCA-IF-2020) from the European Commission (Grant Agreement No. 101032706) awarded to J. Ashwin Rambaran.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0191348242-31"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibtext> Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella-Brodrick, D., Hattie, J., & Waters, L. (2018). 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Ashwin Rambaran, Department of Sociology</p> <p>Kaelyn Sabree, Department of Psychology</p> <p>Allison Ryan, Combined Program in Education and Psychology</p> <p>Kyle Walton, School of Literature, Science & the Arts.</p> <p>Christine Modey, School of Literature, Science & the Arts.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref87"></nolink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Transition%22">School Transition</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Adjustment%22">Student Adjustment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sense+of+Belonging%22">Sense of Belonging</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Networks%22">Social Networks</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Freshmen%22">College Freshmen</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Relationship%22">Peer Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Identification%22">Racial Identification</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predominantly+White+Institutions%22">Predominantly White Institutions</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Residential+Programs%22">Residential Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Classroom+Environment%22">Classroom Environment</searchLink>
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0272-930X<br />1535-0266
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The transition to college presents challenges for students as they form new peer relationships while experiencing varying degrees of belonging within the college community. This study investigated with cross-sectional social network analysis how self-reports of residential program and classroom belonging associated with social and academic networks among a sample of first-year college students (N = 1,125) participating in residential college programs. Analyses revealed that, controlling for each other, residential program belonging but not classroom belonging was significantly associated with students' social and academic networks. Additionally, after accounting for other factors, underrepresented minority students, particularly Black and multiracial students with low residential program belonging, were more likely than White students to hang out with peers across the broader residential college community. Findings highlight the importance of students' sense of belonging for relationships with peers in the transition to college.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: URL
  Label: Access URL
  Group: URL
  Data: <link linkTarget="URL" linkTerm="https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/mpq/vol71/iss1/2" linkWindow="_blank">https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/mpq/vol71/iss1/2</link>
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1507870
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1507870
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 29
        StartPage: 34
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: School Transition
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Adjustment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sense of Belonging
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Networks
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Freshmen
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Peer Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Identification
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Predominantly White Institutions
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Residential Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Classroom Environment
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Peer Relationships and Sense of Belonging in the Transition to College
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Blake Glatley
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: J. Ashwin Rambaran
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kaelyn Sabree
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Allison Ryan
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kyle Walton
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Christine Modey
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0272-930X
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1535-0266
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 71
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Merrill-Palmer Quarterly: A Peer Relations Journal
              Type: main
ResultId 1