Wikis and Constructivism in Secondary Social Studies: Fostering a Deeper Understanding
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| Title: | Wikis and Constructivism in Secondary Social Studies: Fostering a Deeper Understanding |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Heafner, Tina L., Friedman, Adam M. |
| Source: | Computers in the Schools. Oct 2008 25(3-4):288-302. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Physical Description: | |
| Page Count: | 15 |
| Publication Date: | 2008 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Evaluative |
| Education Level: | Elementary Secondary Education Secondary Education |
| Descriptors: | Constructivism (Learning), Self Efficacy, Teaching Methods, Secondary School Students, Learner Engagement, Outcomes of Education, Instructional Effectiveness, Student Motivation, Interviews, Social Studies, Educational Technology, Computer Assisted Instruction, Technology Integration, Internet, Computer Software, Web Sites, Electronic Publishing, Student Developed Materials, Student Projects, Cognitive Development, Quasiexperimental Design |
| DOI: | 10.1080/07380560802371003 |
| ISSN: | 0738-0569 |
| Abstract: | Web 2.0 software, in particular wikis, have the potential to allow students to become active contributors to the Internet and, as a result, restructure traditional learning environments. In this study, the effects of student-created wikis were evaluated through measures of student engagement, cognitive benefits, and student learning in both the short and long term. Data suggest that the use of wikis facilitated a pedagogical shift from traditional teacher-centered instructional approaches to student-oriented, constructivist learning, which resulted in increased student self-efficacy and motivation. Additionally, in interviews eight months following the project implementation, students who had created wikis demonstrated greater content retention and understanding than peers who had learned the same content through teacher-directed instruction. The long-term cognitive value of the wikis positively impacted student understanding by helping students to link content, both literally and figuratively, and develop a deeper understanding of content through visualization of the chronology of events as well as cause and effect relationships. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Number of References: | 26 |
| Entry Date: | 2009 |
| Accession Number: | EJ835768 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwFkNUb62vIj4aiP1rr_s4OtAAAA4jCB3wYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHRMIHOAgEAMIHIBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDBsZv8QmvzmPwES7ugIBEICBmjFVSCFeIW09xKlnYSY7Iwvmv1PR773LomWiWGqXz0rzM9qkQX4J3n3q5sZDdO_gy0B5eDhCOpbn4pdHjQ3-5f6DN3PEerupPeBQPFQ5jSSiN8JZLTs7AWemJRVZgJ09oqRuuF7DV6K46ilJ_jSez0Y2hm0Qr4kgCB5AtT0Cni7V1UYjJlYrdkmC_PQS2KQX3OJglrF9wFexaBA= Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0036289371;cit01sep.08;2019Feb20.14:46;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0036289371-1">Wikis and Constructivism in Secondary Social Studies: Fostering a Deeper Understanding. </title> <p>Web 2.0 software, in particular wikis, have the potential to allow students to become active contributors to the Internet and, as a result, restructure traditional learning environments. In this study, the effects of student-created wikis were evaluated through measures of student engagement, cognitive benefits, and student learning in both the short and long term. Data suggest that the use of wikis facilitated a pedagogical shift from traditional teacher-centered instructional approaches to student-oriented, constructivist learning, which resulted in increased student self-efficacy and motivation. Additionally, in interviews eight months following the project implementation, students who had created wikis demonstrated greater content retention and understanding than peers who had learned the same content through teacher-directed instruction. The long-term cognitive value of the wikis positively impacted student understanding by helping students to link content, both literally and figuratively, and develop a deeper understanding of content through visualization of the chronology of events as well as cause and effect relationships.</p> <p>Keywords: Computers; Web 2.0; Internet; constructivism; student-centered instruction; wiki; social studies; quasi-experimental design; student learning outcomes</p> <p>The nearly ubiquitous access to the Internet has been a boon to the K–12 social studies classroom, as scholars have consistently extolled the benefits of its use for instructional purposes ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref2">16</reflink>]) and as it offers teachers and students access to information and materials that were previously unavailable that can allow students to evaluate and substantiate differing points of view on a particular topic ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref4">24</reflink>]). More specifically, this access to information can allow teachers and students to engage in constructivist and inquiry learning in which students are active participants in learning processes that focus on their generating and developing products, rather than being passive recipients of knowledge ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref6">12</reflink>]). This type of instruction has been encouraged by recent literature on best practices in terms of teaching and learning social studies ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref7">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref8">5</reflink>]). By teaching social studies through the pedagogical method of constructivism, the potential exists for it to become an active subject in which students are engaged in the content, while simultaneously preparing the young people of today to "develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world" ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref9">20</reflink>], p. 3), which is among the fundamental goals of social studies ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref10">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although the Internet can allow classrooms to move beyond those described by [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>] in which teacher-centered instruction and worksheets were the order of the day, research on Internet use within secondary social studies classrooms has tended to focus on teacher and student retrieval and acquisition of static teaching and learning materials from the Internet ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref12">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref13">15</reflink>]), as opposed to the development and generation of materials that demonstrate not only knowledge about a particular subject, but also the sharing of it with other Internet users. Further, studies have shown that the Internet tends to be used in a low-level manner, as a tool for collecting facts, as opposed to engaging students in higher order thinking ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref14">23</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref15">25</reflink>]). A notable exception to this was described by [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref16">19</reflink>] study in which students developed "Web sites in order to demonstrate their understanding of the American Civil War," (Friedman &amp; Heafner, 2007, p. 200) and in so doing, they noted that this was well within the means and wherewithal of the students. It is important to note, however, that the setting for their study was an upper level undergraduate history course, and not a K–12 classroom.</p> <p>The advent of Web 2.0 Web sites and their affiliated software has the potential to shift this paradigm in terms of student Internet use, as students may become active contributors to the Internet, as opposed to more passive recipients of content produced and distributed by others. While there is not an official definition of Web 2.0, in its most basic form, it refers to the notion that not only can individuals interact with Web sites, customize them for their use, and instantaneously publish their thoughts and ideas, but also the underlying premonition is that Web publishing is no longer reserved for individuals who have the ability to use a Web editor or write HTML code and have both access as well as the wherewithal to upload files to a server. Instead, by using Web 2.0 sites, users can develop and store data on a particular Web site for the world to see, without the need for any superfluous software other than a Web browser, since these sites store individual data ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref17">2</reflink>]). In other words, individuals can contribute to the Internet with very little technical knowledge and thus become contributors to the Internet as opposed to being resigned to reading the writing of others.</p> <hd id="AN0036289371-2">WEB 2.0 IN THE K–12 SOCIAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT</hd> <p>Although numerous Web 2.0 Web sites and applications exist, such as weblogs, wikis, and social bookmarking sites, all of which have the potential to help achieve the goal of developing "active, informed citizens" ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref18">20</reflink>], p. vii), wikis are particularly well suited for use within the secondary social studies environment. Among a wiki's (which is the Hawaiian word for 'quick') attributes are its ease of use, since wikis can be edited with "what you see is what you get (WYSIWYG)" editors. WYSIWYG Web editors allow users to publish to the Internet without having to know HTML code, and in terms of including images, users need only copy an image and then paste it in the desired location. Further, wikis can generally be used without cost ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref19">21</reflink>]). These qualities are important in a secondary school for two overarching reasons. Not only does the simplicity of their use allow teachers and students to focus on content rather than the technological tool, as [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref20">18</reflink>] suggest, but they also eliminate the barrier of teachers not having access to Web editing software on their computers at school, as well as the potentially cumbersome task of uploading files because of lack of access to ftp in schools, which [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref21">7</reflink>] study. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, there are wikis that are available free of charge and that are generally not blocked by Internet filters that are oftentimes present in secondary school environments.</p> <p>However, as [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>] point out, wikis can easily be modified by anybody with Internet access. While this feature may be considered a negative aspect in that it allows an individual to change the content of a Web site (in fact it is referred to as "vandalism" on wikipedia), in many ways, this feature makes it particularly useful and compatible for the secondary social studies environment, as teachers (as well as classmates) can embed their commentary within student (and peer) work ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref23">26</reflink>], online). Another potential drawback is infringement of copyright law. Because of the straightforwardness of their use (particularly the copy and paste feature), students may use others' work as their own, or perhaps overlook crediting the source of an image. However, because a wiki is editable by a teacher (and previous versions are saved), content can be removed until proper credit is given.</p> <p>Another advantage of the use of a wiki in the secondary social studies environment has to do with its inherent characteristic of being Web-based. Students are cognizant that the content they publish on their wiki is on the Internet and therefore available to a truly worldwide audience. Also, similar to other Web 2.0 tools such as weblogs, each wiki has a specific Uniform Resource Locator (URL). In their observation of graduate students' use of weblogs or discussion boards, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref24">17</reflink>] proposed that weblogs offered a "greater sense of permanence," (p. 59) as they could continually be updated and refined after the completion of a course. While graduate students are certainly different from those enrolled in secondary social studies classes, the same notion nevertheless applies.</p> <p>Because of the aforementioned potentially positive features of wikis, the researchers have undertaken a series of studies in which students use wikis in order to develop a Web site that demonstrates and describes their understanding of a particular content topic within social studies. In the short term, the constructivist learning environment created and enhanced by wikis has been well received by both teachers and students but has not necessarily been reflected by success on fact-recall, multiple choice tests ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref25">9</reflink>]). However, the researchers endeavored to follow up with the students eight months subsequent to their use of wikis in order to determine the level to which students had retained the material. Therefore, the research questions in this study were to ascertain the degree to which wikis foster a constructivist (in terms of students as contributors of knowledge) learning environment, as well as the long-term effects on student learning.</p> <hd id="AN0036289371-3">METHOD</hd> <p>As noted above, as a method of addressing the relative lack of evidence as to technology's impact on student learning within social studies ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref26">10</reflink>]), we have undertaken a series of studies on the use of wikis in the secondary social studies environment as a method for fostering constructivism, and in each study, we have utilized a quasi-experimental design in which one teacher has taught two sections of the same class; in one section students developed wikis, and in the other section, the teacher taught the class using his or her normal pedagogical methods ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref27">8</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref28">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref29">13</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref30">14</reflink>]). In this particular study, two university instructors in collaboration with a secondary social studies teacher designed a unit of study on World War II for eleventh-grade U.S. history students. The task required students in the test class to develop a wiki as an electronic scrapbook in which students visually presented and explained events that occurred in World War II through various perspectives, which required students to synthesize the impact of World War II by interpreting primary source images. At the beginning of the unit, these students were given an assignment outlining expectations for the unit of study and guiding organizational instructions. The control class was taught in a teacher-centered format at a low level of Bloom's taxonomy in order for, in the teacher's words, "students to pass the [end-of-course] test."</p> <p>Student wikis comprised eight pages representing key themes of the war and included the following: causes, U.S. entry, home front, Holocaust, war in Europe, war in the Pacific, and outcomes. Within each page, students posted primary source images, their analysis of each visual, and a rationale for its inclusion. To facilitate this process, university instructors created an electronic collection of primary sources that were categorically organized and compiled within a Web page with the purpose of reducing class time used searching for primary sources and to ensure quality resources. Students utilized this collection to locate images and primary sources for inclusion in their pages and as a supplement to content readings from the U.S. history textbook.</p> <p>The unit of study was taught by the classroom teacher with support from the two university instructors who served as participant observers. The teacher individually dialogued with students to answer content questions, reaffirmed interpretations of primary sources, and provided feedback to ensure content understanding. University instructors presented the initial class instruction on how to create a Web site using wikis, offered daily technical support in the use of wikis to both students and the teacher, and addressed content questions posed by students. This interaction between the university instructors (both licensed social studies teachers) and students presented a potential limitation of this study, as it created a change in the student-teacher ratio. Contrarily, although the researchers observed the control class, they did not intervene in the instruction.</p> <p>To evaluate the extent to which the use of wikis fostered a constructivist environment in the short term, and ultimately its impact on student achievement in the long term, data were collected from the following sources: observational data, teacher interviews, unit and post-test scores, and student questionnaires (see [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref31">9</reflink>]). Follow-up student interviews were conducted eight months after the completion of the project with a stratified sample of paired students for a total of five students from each class. Students were stratified to control for differences in overall academic performance. Qualitative data were analyzed to ascertain the degree to which wikis foster a constructivist (in terms of students as contributors of knowledge) learning environment, as well as the long-term effects on student learning.</p> <hd id="AN0036289371-4">IMPLEMENTATION AND OUTCOMES</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0036289371-5">Fostering Constructivism</hd> <p>From the beginning of this unit of study, class structure was considerably different from what students had encountered throughout this course and in much of their educational experiences; consequently, this contrast from the pedagogical norm was noted by one student who stated in his summative questionnaire that this assignment was significantly different from the way he had been taught in the last 11 years of school ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref32">9</reflink>]). This pedagogical shift from behaviorist to constructivist learning was facilited by wikis, which enabled students to move beyond passive class participants and become active creators of knowledge. In addition, the role of technology in scaffolding student learning was starkly different from instructional uses of technology from which students had been accustomed.</p> <p>Prior units of study in this U.S. history course had been teacher-centered and reflected the teacher's preference for behaviorist pedagogical approaches. Interviews with the teacher revealed her belief that "students need the teacher to support and make sense of the content." This pedagogical belief that students could not indepentently learn social studies content guided her instructional format. The teacher assigned nightly readings from the textbook that strictly followed a department pacing guide for U.S. history. The pacing guide allocated instructional time for each goal of the state standardized curriculum and dictated exactly what content would be covered each instructional day, expected textbook readings related to the content, and length of time to be spent on content objectives. This strict pacing guide was developed to ensure departmental success on the state standardized end-of-course test. Class instruction began with teacher-centered map work, followed by a reading quiz and teacher directed instruction through lecture and question-and-answer sessions. Periodically, the teacher included an instructional activity, which often was a game that was intended to reinforce content learned through teacher-mediated learning.</p> <p>The teacher, an advocate of technology, often used technology for preparation of her lessons, yet her use of technology focused mostly on teacher use with little to no student interaction with technology. The teacher's affinity toward technology was demonstated in her daily use of the technology hardware available in her classroom. She had a computer and projector in the front of the room that she used to display PowerPoints she had developed for her lectures. These PowerPoints included visual images and maps to support student learning of the historical people, events, and locations relevant to the unit of study. She even acknowledged in the follow-up interview that she had used many of the images in her PowerPoints that students had included in their World War II wikis.</p> <p>In contrast, the learning environment of the technology-based World War II unit of study was one in which students actively engaged in generating meaningful understanding of social studies content. In this unit, students had to work through and analyze primary sources as well as organize content in order to demonstrate understanding of World War II in the development of their wiki. This pedagogically different approach to learning was a driving force behind increased student interest and enjoyment. As an example, student attendance for this unit of study was significantly higher than any prior or post unit of study. This class met first period, which began at 7:30 am, and attendance was often problematic. The teacher encouraged class attendance by offering to bring breakfast if everyone could be present on the same day. Of 16 students, on average there would be 5 to 6 absences daily. During the two weeks of this project, only one student was absent on one day and another missed two days due to school competency testing. Although wikis cannot be inferred as the cause of increased student attendance, their use was attributed by the teacher as a factor affecting the change in attendance patterns.</p> <p>In addition to attendance, student engagement was also measured by whether students completed assigned readings. In previous units, at least half of the students in this class did not complete the reading guides that accompanied reading assignments. As students became more involved in the project, students completed readings for homework so that they could spend class time working on their Web sites. One student, Jonathan (a pseudonym), had yet to complete an assigned reading. Jonathan, as discussed in the follow-up interview with the teacher, completed his first outside-of-class reading for the entire course during this unit. It should also be noted that students voluntarily completed assigned readings without the external pressures of daily quizzes, which were dropped so that class time could be utilized for computer lab resources. In addition, informal assessments of daily reviews of Web site content replaced quizzes in measuring student understanding of content.</p> <p>Students used wikis to make links, both literally and figuratively, to the events of World War II and to how these events impacted the lives of Americans as well as citizens of all countries involved. As an example, students developed separate pages evaluating the war in Europe, the war in the Pacific, and the "war" on the American home front. Although these pages presented content explicit to the region impacted, the Web-based learning forum required students to move beyond studying events in isolation, as traditionally presented within textbooks, toward a level of recognition of simultaenous occurrence, connection among all, and the key understanding of cause and effect. The congitive value of linking as a learning tool is discussed in more detail in the subsequent section.</p> <p>Wikis provided a learning environment that enabled students to individually explore battles, images, events, and people, such as the changing role of African Americans and women, in more depth than the traditional teacher-directed approach. Students used textbook readings as foundational knowledge and contextual information to build the content framework for their wiki. Then students spent class time watching digital videos on trench warfare, viewing images of "Wreaths" in Poland, sifting through graphic photos of Holocaust victims, and reading journals of African American soldiers and letters from women on the home front. Once students established a solid understanding, and with much deliberation, they selected the most appropriate images for their wiki. In the follow-up interview with the teacher, she acknowledged how unique student wikis were and that students had not duplicated images. Students also noted in their questionnaires ownership of images that they had included within their wikis and time to explore content of interest.</p> <p>In the final class meeting of the unit, students presented one page of their wikis as an informal demonstration of their understanding of World War II as well as an opportunity to showcase their work. One student, Jessie (a pseudonym), in describing a primary source poster on his home front page, with much confidence, stated, "This was a pretty 'bad' picture. It's a picture of everything." He continued by describing the complexity of the image and how it visually illustrated the changes caused by World War II to American society and social norms as well as economic and political ramifications. Affirmation of visually based learning and deeper content understanding ensued in the follow-up student interviews as all students indicated a connection to images when recalling events and facts about World War II. When asked eight months later what students remembered about World War II, a student, Ginger (a pseudonym) responded, "The thing that stuck out the most to me about doing that Web site thing was the Holocaust. ... what stood out to me were the pictures. ... they were really graphic." These examples provide insight into the potential of wikis to improve student self-efficacy and scaffold richer content understanding through visually based learning.</p> <p>Wikis also mediated a more collaborative and communicative learning environment in which students initiated questions, answered peer questions, engaged the teacher in individual dialogue, and conversed with peers about their wikis both socially and as part of the final critique of the project. Students frequently made comparisions of images, showcased visuals, and commented on peer wikis. After showcasing his image to peers, a student, Curtis (a pseudonym) called the teacher over to show her the image that he had selected for his Holocaust page. With much pride, he described how the image protrayed ethnic prejudice and Nazi propaganda.</p> <p>Not only were images useful in capturing student attention, they were also excellent instructional tools for understanding content. On one occasion a student was struggling with the meaning of his map. The teacher noted his struggles and paused to talk in depth with the student. Through her questioning, he was able to develop a complex interpretation of the role of geography in military strategy and warfare. Also, because each student's wiki was posted online, the teacher was able to access them from home and then provide individual daily comments for each student. A final example occurred on one of the later days of the project in which four students critiqued one another's wikis. As students reviewed each wiki together, they offered suggestions on technical formatting, gave recommendations for additional meanings of images, and asked questions as to why the image had been selected. They discussed the categories and topics of World War II that mirrored the organization of the wiki.</p> <hd id="AN0036289371-6">Effects on Student Learning</hd> <p>In a climate of high-stakes accountability, student performance on end-of-course tests (EOCs) such as the one adminstered in this U.S. history class were the primary focus of teacher assessment and instruction. To prepare students for EOCs, departmental multiple choice tests were adminstered at the conclusion of each unit of study. Teacher emphasis on the importance of student achievement was evidenced by concerns expressed during the project that students in the test class (those that created wikis) were not learning what "they needed to know for the [end-of-course] test" in comparison to students in the control class. Unit test results confirmed teacher concerns, as students in the control class (<emph>M</emph><subs>C</subs> = 86.1, <emph>SD</emph><subs>C</subs> = 7.4) on average scored higher than their paired counterparts in the technology-based class (<emph>M</emph><subs>T</subs> = 79.4, <emph>SD</emph><subs>T</subs> = 13.6). These results differed from qualitative data that demonstrated increased engagement, motivation, and interest in learning social studies for students who had created wikis (see [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref33">9</reflink>]). Traditional assessment practices (i.e., student performance on fact recall, mulitple-choice tests) did not reflect short term gains in student achievement despite qualitative benefits, and this led the teacher to conclude in the follow-up interview that "in order to ensure student success on the EOCs," she could not afford to allocate extensive time to student use of technology.</p> <p>To further explore the effects of wikis on student learning, interviews with students were conducted eight months following the Web site development project with a stratified sample of five paired students from both the control and test classes. Results from student interviews provided contrasting data from initial measures of student achievement. As part of the interview, students were adminstered a posttest to capture what students remembered about World War II from this unit of study. Students in the test class, on average, scored higher (<emph>M</emph><subs>T</subs> = 66.0, <emph>SD</emph><subs>T</subs> = 16.7) than the control group (<emph>M</emph><subs>C</subs> = 44.0, <emph>SD</emph><subs>C</subs> = 20.7). Data suggest the possiblity that students who created wikis had greater content retention than students who were taught in a more traditional teacher-directed approach.</p> <p>Qualitative data support this interpretation as well. Overwhelmingly, test class student answers to the content-based interview questions were more accurate and much more detailed than the students in the control class. For example, Janice (a pseudonym), a student in the control class, began her interview with the following dialgue:</p> <p>Interviewer: What do you remember about World War II?</p> <p>Janice: Really not a lot. I really do not remember anything.</p> <p>Interviewer: Do you remember when the war took place?</p> <p>Janice: (Laughing) I know this is bad, but I don't remember.</p> <p>Interviewer: Take a guess, any countries that were involved?</p> <p>Janice: Um, I know we were but I don't know... let me think ... what country was that? I'm not sure.</p> <p>In contrast, Jackie (a pseudonym), a student in the test class, began her interview with this dialgoue:</p> <p>Interviewer: What do you remember about World War II?</p> <p>Jackie: As in like the project that we did or just like information about it?</p> <p>Interviewer: Talk about both.</p> <p>Jackie: The thing that still gets me the most from doing that Web site was like the Holocaust. I remember something about Germany and then I know France was involved and something. I think I remember D-Day. That's pretty much it.</p> <p>Interviewer: What do you remember about the Holocaust?</p> <p>Jackie: What stood out to me were the pictures that I found of like the camps and stuff like that. The pictures that I found were like graphic and stuff. Like I did not expect that.</p> <p>In just the first six exchanges, Jackie revealed a greater retention and understanding of what occurred in World War II. All 10 interviews presented this same contrast in students' ability to remember content. There were no differences among the various academic levels. The only difference existed in which class students had taken, and this proved to be the determinate of whether students could effectively recall content.</p> <p>This was a similar pattern throughout the other eight student interviews, as students who had designed wikis routinely recollected facts and inferences about World War II, as well as the project itself. For example, an interview with Bob (a pseudonym), who created a wiki, began with him saying that he "didn't know" about World War II—but he then noted he that "it was fought in Germany, Europe, [and the] Pacific" between "Allied and Axis powers." Further, not only was he able to name the main Allied and Axis participants, but he was also able to identify their leaders. It is also significant to note that he "remember[ed] making that Web page." On the other hand, Bob's paired counterpart, Sue (a pseudonym), while she was able to recollect important facts about the European front, particularly Germany and the Nazi party, was unable to articulate more than one theater of war.</p> <p>Each of the five students interviewed from the test class indicated early within their inteview, just as Jackie and Bob did above, a connection with the wiki project. When asked about World War II, students experienced "aha moments" such as, "Oh, that was the unit that we created our own Web pages," and quickly made the connection between content and pedagocial practices. Students in the test class delineated their discussion of the factors, contributors, and events of World War II categorically as they had visually displayed on their wikis. For example, one student recalled when asked about where the War was fought that "we created a page of the war in the Pacific and a page on the war in Europe" and then continued with an explanation of each of these two fronts of the war. Another student affirmed the role of the wikis and the Web site development in categorzing information. When asked what he remembered about World War II, the student responded, "Just D-Day and there were different segments of it. (pause) I don't know. (pause) Four or five different parts of the war. (pause) Like the concentration camps. (pause) I just remember doing four or five pages that we had to create a Web site ...concentration campus, Hitler, D-Day ..." In contrast, students in the control class tended to present facts in isolation, and not one student could identify the two fronts of the war without probing from the interviewer.</p> <hd id="AN0036289371-7">IMPLICATIONS</hd> <p>These data provide evidence as to the potential long-term impacts that constructivist pedagogy and student use of wikis can have for fostering student learning, and they begin to address the dearth of research on the impact of technology on student achievement, as elucidated by [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref34">10</reflink>]. These results, however, not measurable by conventional evaluation standards, may be the greater determinate of student academic success. Long-term cognitive gains are better indicators of actual learning and are not as visible as a significant jump in test scores, but they need to be considered when evaluating student achievement. The students who designed wikis may not have learned what the teacher indicated that "they needed to know for the [end-of-course] test." Yet, because of the nature of the assignment, they did learn about aspects of World War II that interested them and as a result they were able to retain more content knowledge as well as demonstrate a broader understanding of World War II over the long term. These data suggest that a pedagogical break from traditional instructional practices that have been embedded in the educational system can positively impact student learning. Yes, the control class learned what they needed to know for the test and outscored students in the test class on the unit test, but the long-term outcomes of this traditional pedagogical approach did not significantly impact overall student learning as did the constructivist-mediated use of wikis.</p> <p>It is therefore necessary to look deeper into what was occurring as a result of this student-centered, constructivist instruction. It is certainly possible that there was a novelty effect, as this was the first wiki that each student had developed, and it is also possible that learning gains were a result of three licensed social studies teachers being present in the computer lab. However, the nature of the assignment, as well as its execution through the use of wikis, was a more likely cause. The interactivity inherent in wikis was a vehicle by which students could engage in constructivist learning while simultaneously developing (both literally and figuratively) connections between different aspects of World War II. Finally, the long-term results of this study verify not only that constructivism can be an effective manner by which to teach social studies ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref35">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref36">5</reflink>]), but also that because of the ubiquity of the Internet in the K–12 environment, Web 2.0 applications, wikis in particular, have the potential to shift student uses of the Internet from the static recollection of facts described by [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref37">23</reflink>]) and [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref38">25</reflink>] to a scenario in which students are actively engaged in the subject matter in order to develop their own understandings, and thus become generators of knowledge as well as active contributors to the Internet, fundamental underpinnings of the [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref39">20</reflink>] goal of developing "active, informed citizens" that contribute to the "public good" (p. vii).</p> <ref id="AN0036289371-8"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Braun, J. and Risinger, F.1999. Surfing social studies, Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref17" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Bull, G. and Ferster, B.2005–2006. Ubiquitous computing in a Web 2.0 world. Learning and Leading with Technology, 33(4): 9–11.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Cohen, D.J. and Rosenzweig, R.2006. Digital history: A guide to gathering, preserving, and presenting the past on the Web, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref7" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Crocco, M.S.2001. "Leveraging constructivist learning in the social studies classroom: A response to Mason, Berson, Diem, Hicks, Lee, and Dralle". In Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education [Online serial], 1(3)Retrieved September 15, 2007, <ulink href="http://www.citejournal.org/vol1/iss3/currentissues/socialstudies/article2.htm">http://www.citejournal.org/vol1/iss3/currentissues/socialstudies/article2.htm</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref5" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Doolittle, P.E. and Hicks, D.2003. Constructivism as a theoretical foundation for the use of technology in social studies. Theory and Research in Social Education, 31(1): 72–104.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref12" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Friedman, A.M.2006a. World history teachers' use of digital primary sources: The effect of training. Theory and Research in Social Education, 34(1): 124–141.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref21" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Friedman, A.M.2006b. K–12 teachers' use of course websites. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 14(4): 795–815.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref27" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Friedman, A.M. and Heafner, T.L.2006, November. "Website construction in ninth grade social studies". In Technology Research in the K–12 History Classroom, Edited by: Swan, K.Washington, DC: Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the College and University Faculty Assembly. (Chair)</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref25" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Friedman, A.M. and Heafner, T.L.2007. You think for me, so I don't have to. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 7(3)Retrieved September 15, 2007, <ulink href="http://www.citejournal.org/vol7/iss3/socialstudies/article1.cfm">http://www.citejournal.org/vol7/iss3/socialstudies/article1.cfm</ulink> [Online serial]</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Friedman, A.M. and Hicks, D.2006. The state of the field: Technology, social studies, and teacher education. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 6(2)Retrieved September 16, 2007, <ulink href="http://www.citejournal.org/vol6/iss2/socialstudies/article1.cfm">http://www.citejournal.org/vol6/iss2/socialstudies/article1.cfm</ulink> [Online serial]</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Goodlad, J.I.1984. A place called school: Prospects for the future, New York: McGraw Hill.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hannafin, M.J. and Hill, J.R.2002. "Epistemology and the design of learning environments". In Trends and issues in instructional design and technology, Edited by: Reiser, R.A. and Dempsey, J.V.70–82. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Heafner, T.L. and Friedman, A.M.Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education. San Antonio, TX. The effect of website development on student attitudes and interest in 11th grade United States history,</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Heafner, T.L. and Friedman, A.M.Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago, IL. "... Because that's the way it's been for 11 years." The effect of student website development on student achievement,</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hicks, D., Doolittle, P. and Lee, J.K.2004. Social studies teachers' use of classroom-based and Web-based historical primary sources. Theory and Research in Social Education, 32(2): 213–247.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hicks, D. and Ewing, E.2003. Bringing the world into the classroom with online global newspapers. Social Education, 67(3): 134–139.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Martindale, T. and Wiley, D.A.2005. Using weblogs in scholarship and teaching. 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Blogs, wikis, podcasts, and other powerful Web tools for classrooms, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Richardson, W. and Mancabelli, R.2007. High-tech inspires the read/write website: Beginning to have a profound impact on curriculum. Education Digest, 72(9): 14–18.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> VanFossen, P.1999-2000. An analysis of the use of the Internet and World Wide Web by secondary social studies teachers in Indiana. International Journal of Social Education, 14(2): 87–109.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> VanFossen, P.J. and Shiveley, J.M.2000. Using the Internet to create primary source teaching packets. Social Studies, 91(6): 244–252.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Whitworth, S.A. and Berson, M.J.2003. Computer technology in the social studies: An examination of the effectiveness literature (1996–2001). Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 2(4)Retrieved September 21, 2007, <ulink href="http://www.citejournal.org/vol2/iss4/socialstudies/article1.cfm">http://www.citejournal.org/vol2/iss4/socialstudies/article1.cfm</ulink> [Online serial]</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wikipedia. 2007. WikiRetrieved on September 29, 2007 from <ulink href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiki">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiki</ulink></bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By TinaL. Heafner and AdamM. Friedman</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref30"></nolink> |
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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Wikis and Constructivism in Secondary Social Studies: Fostering a Deeper Understanding – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Heafner%2C+Tina+L%2E%22">Heafner, Tina L.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Friedman%2C+Adam+M%2E%22">Friedman, Adam M.</searchLink> – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Computers+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Computers in the Schools</i></searchLink>. Oct 2008 25(3-4):288-302. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: PhysDesc Label: Physical Description Group: PhysDesc Data: PDF – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 15 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2008 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Evaluative – Name: Audience Label: Education Level Group: Audnce Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Constructivism+%28Learning%29%22">Constructivism (Learning)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Students%22">Secondary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learner+Engagement%22">Learner Engagement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Outcomes+of+Education%22">Outcomes of Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Instructional+Effectiveness%22">Instructional Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Motivation%22">Student Motivation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interviews%22">Interviews</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Studies%22">Social Studies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Technology%22">Educational Technology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Assisted+Instruction%22">Computer Assisted Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Technology+Integration%22">Technology Integration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Internet%22">Internet</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Software%22">Computer Software</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Web+Sites%22">Web Sites</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Electronic+Publishing%22">Electronic Publishing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Developed+Materials%22">Student Developed Materials</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Projects%22">Student Projects</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cognitive+Development%22">Cognitive Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Quasiexperimental+Design%22">Quasiexperimental Design</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/07380560802371003 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0738-0569 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: Web 2.0 software, in particular wikis, have the potential to allow students to become active contributors to the Internet and, as a result, restructure traditional learning environments. In this study, the effects of student-created wikis were evaluated through measures of student engagement, cognitive benefits, and student learning in both the short and long term. Data suggest that the use of wikis facilitated a pedagogical shift from traditional teacher-centered instructional approaches to student-oriented, constructivist learning, which resulted in increased student self-efficacy and motivation. Additionally, in interviews eight months following the project implementation, students who had created wikis demonstrated greater content retention and understanding than peers who had learned the same content through teacher-directed instruction. The long-term cognitive value of the wikis positively impacted student understanding by helping students to link content, both literally and figuratively, and develop a deeper understanding of content through visualization of the chronology of events as well as cause and effect relationships. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: Ref Label: Number of References Group: RefInfo Data: 26 – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2009 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ835768 |
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| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/07380560802371003 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 15 StartPage: 288 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Constructivism (Learning) Type: general – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy Type: general – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods Type: general – SubjectFull: Secondary School Students Type: general – SubjectFull: Learner Engagement Type: general – SubjectFull: Outcomes of Education Type: general – SubjectFull: Instructional Effectiveness Type: general – SubjectFull: Student Motivation Type: general – SubjectFull: Interviews Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Studies Type: general – SubjectFull: Educational Technology Type: general – SubjectFull: Computer Assisted Instruction Type: general – SubjectFull: Technology Integration Type: general – SubjectFull: Internet Type: general – SubjectFull: Computer Software Type: general – SubjectFull: Web Sites Type: general – SubjectFull: Electronic Publishing Type: general – SubjectFull: Student Developed Materials Type: general – SubjectFull: Student Projects Type: general – SubjectFull: Cognitive Development Type: general – SubjectFull: Quasiexperimental Design Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Wikis and Constructivism in Secondary Social Studies: Fostering a Deeper Understanding Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Heafner, Tina L. – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Friedman, Adam M. IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 10 Type: published Y: 2008 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0738-0569 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 25 – Type: issue Value: 3-4 Titles: – TitleFull: Computers in the Schools Type: main |
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